
G . W. WARBUiTOl^ 






Class _fi44^_Ll51 
Book._J!j^^!4____ 

CffiSRIGHT DEPOSm 




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Pi 



FIELD CROPS 



BY 

A. D. WILSON 

SUPERINTENDENT OF INSTITUTES AND AGRICULTURAL 

EXTENSION, COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, 

UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA 



AND 



C. W. WARBURTON 

AGRONOMIST, BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY, UNITED 
STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 



REVISED 




1918 



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COPYRIGHT, 1912, 1918 

BY 

WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY 

All Rights Reserved 

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DEC I2i918 



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C!.A5()6867 



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PREFACE 

The extensive use of the previous edition of Field Crops 
indicates that it fulfilled an acceptable mission when agricul- 
tural courses were being formulated and a text of this char- 
acter was most needed. The study of agriculture has recently 
received from educators and governmental authority a new 
impetus on account of the economic importance of crop 
production. The study of field crops will, therefore, be 
undertaken more widely than ever before and with a keener 
appreciation of its value in the national welfare. 

In order to be fully apace with matters of figures and 
fact, a thorough revision has been made of all those parts of 
the text where experience has suggested improvement or 
changes of statistics or conditions have made it necessary. 
It is now believed that it contains the latest available infor- 
mation and practice with reference to the subjects treated. 
At no other time has there been so national a demand for the 
specialized teaching of agriculture. It is hoped that this 
text in its present form will commend itself anew as adapted 
to the peculiar requirements of these intensive times. 

Field Crops has been prepared for students of high school 
grade and for those in many other public and private agri- 
cultural schools and. colleges that desire to teach practical 
scientific courses in agriculture. Not only as regards sub- 
ject matter but with special reference also to the language 
and style of presentation the book has been adapted to the 
comprehension and interest of the student. It is more per- 
sonal than bookish. 

The work is intended to cover the period of the school 
year. The time spent upon it, however, may be reduced to 
a semester by omitting the study of those crops which may 



6 FIELD CROPS 

be less dominant in the interest of a local community and 
by limiting the number of exercises that are undertaken. 

The study of Field Crops does not presuppose a previous 
course in botany or general science. 

Supplementary references have been given at the close 
of each chapter in the way of Farmers' Bulletins, which may 
be obtained free from the Department of Agriculture, Wash- 
ington, D. C, and of standard volumes which should find a 
place in the school library. The publications of local experi- 
ment stations should also be obtained. 

The laboratory exercises and field projects which appear 
at the close of the chapters are merely suggestive, as it is 
thought that the local conditions and the individual judg- 
ment of the teacher will in most instances determine the 
character of the experiments. In each classroom special em- 
phasis should be given to the particular crops which are of 
importance in the region where the instruction is given. Fre- 
quent visits should be made to farms in the vicinity, and as 
many of the crops as possible studied at first hand. Small 
plats of some crops not common in the community may well 
be grown on the school farm to supply illustrative material. 

While the book is designed primarily for text use, the 
authors trust that it will also be of interest to farmers and 
to those who desire to become farmers. The results of many^ 
experiments have been embodied in the text, as have also 
the practical experiences of many good farmers. The aim 
throughout has been to make a simple, practical, readable 
manual. 

Our acknowledgments are due to various officials of the 
United States Department of Agriculture, and to the Ohio, 
Kansas, and Minnesota experiment stations for illustrative 
material. 

A. D. WILSON. 
C. W. WARBURTON 
October 1, 1918. 



CONTENTS 

PART I— INTRODUCTION 

Chapter Page 

I Classification of Crops 11 

Definition of Terms. Classification of Crops. Rela- 
tive Importance. Description of Classes. Uses of 
Crops. Choice of Crops. Diversification. 

II The Growth of Plants. 23 

The Seed and Its Germination. What the Leaves Do. 
The Roots and Their Uses. Elements of Plant Food 
and Their Uses. The Production of Seed. 

PART II— GRAIN CROPS 

m Com. 46 

Origin and Description. Classification. Importance. 
Soils and Fertilizers. Preparation of the Soil. Pre- 
paration of Seed for Planting. Planting. Cultivation. 
Harvesting. Fodder Corn. Corn for Silage. Market- 
ing and Returns. Corn in Crop Rotations. Selection 
of Seed Corn. Storing the Seed. Uses. Diseases and 
Insects. Improvement. Judging. 

IV Wheat. . 123 

Description and Classification. Importance. Soils 
and Fertilizers. Growing the Crop. Harvesting and 
Threshing, Marketing and Market Grades. Prices 
and Cost. Relation to Other Crops. Uses. Diseases 
and Insect Enemies. Methods of Improvement. 

V Oats 163 

History and Description. Importance. Production. 
Harvesting. Marketing and Returns. Rotations. Uses. 
Insects and Diseases. Improvement. 

VI Barley 197 

History and Description. Importance. Production. 
Harvesting. Marketing and Returns. Relation to 
Other Crops. Uses. Insects and Diseases. Improve- 
ment. 

Vn Rye. 217 

Origin and Description. Importance. Production. 
Growing the Crop. Uses. Diseases. 

Vni Flax. 225 

History and Description. Importance. Growing the 
Crop. Harvesting and Handling. Market and Re- 
turns. Diseases and Insects. Rotation. Uses. Im- 
provement. 

7 



8 FIELD CROPS 

Chapter Page 

IX Miscellaneous Grain Crops 237 

Rice. The Grain Sorghums. Broom Corn. Buck- 
wheat. The Millets. 

PART III— FORAGE CROPS 

X Introduction 253 

Definitions. Importance. Classification. Forage Pro- 
duction. Uses of Forage. Essentials of a Forage Crop. 
Feeding Value. 

XI The Making of a Meadow . . 260 

Essentials. Form_ation of a Meadow. Sowing in Mix- 
tures. Preparing the Land. Selection of the Seed. 
Germination Test. Time to Sow. Use of Nurse Crop. 
Seeding. Important Meadow Plants. Care of the 
Meadow. Permanent Meadows and Their Improve- 
ment. Place in the Rotation. 

[ XII Hay and Hay-Making ^ 271 

Hay Plants. Production of Hay. Acre Yield and 
Value. Time to Cut. Method of Cutting. Curing. 
Machinery. Storing. Baling. Measuring. Market 
Classes. 

XIII Pastures i 281 

Importance. Essentials. Formation of a Pasture. 
Pasture Plants. Improving Native Pastures. Manage- 
ment of Pastures. Renovating Old Pastures. 

XIV The Grasses 287 

Definition. General Characters. Differences. Reason 
for Importance. Comparative Value of Different 
Grasses. 

XV Perennial Grasses 291 

Timothy. Kentucky Blue Grass. Redtop. Orchard 
Grass. Bermuda Grass. Johnson Grass. Brome Grass. 
Wheat Grasses. Fescues. Rye Grasses. 

XVI Annual Forage Grasses 315 

The Sorghums. Sudan Grass. Foxtail Millets. Other 
Millets. The Small Grains. 

XVII The Legumes 327 

What Legumes Are. General Characters. Differences. 
Importance. How the Legumes Gather Nitrogen. 
Nitrifying Bacteria. Inoculation. 

XVIII The Clovers 333 

Red Clover. White Clover. Alsike Clover. Crimson 
Clover. 

XIX Alfalfa 351 

Origin and History. Description. Varieties. Produc- 
tion. The Yield. Soils and Fertilizers. Preparation 
of the Land. Sowing the Seed. Time of Seeding. 



CONTENTS 



XX 



Chapter p^ 

With a Nurse Crop. Inoculation. Treatment of 
Meadows. Making the Hay. Harvesting. In Rota- 
tions. Use of Hay. Alfalfa for Pasture, Soiling, Meal. 
Insects and Rodent Pests. Diseases. Weeds. 

Miscellaneous Legumes 357 

Cowpea. Soy Bean. Peanut. Field Pea. Field Bean. 
Sweet Clover. Bur Clover. Japan Clover. Vetch. 
Velvet Bean. 

XXI Root Crops 339 

Mangels. Carrots. Turnips and Rutagabas.* Cabbage 
and Kohl-rabi. Rape and Kale. 



xxn 



xxm 



XXIV 



XXV 



XXVI 



xxvn 



PART IV— MISCELLANEOUS CROPS 

Root and Tuber Food Crops 399 

The Potato: History and Classification, importance, 
Soils and Fertilizers, Production, Harvesting and Stor- 
ing, Marketing, Rotation, Diseases and Insects, Improv- 
ment. The Sweet Potato: Description, Importance, 
Soils and Fertilizers, Method of Production. 

Sugar Plants 426 

History and Description. The Sugar Beet: Import- 
ance, Culture, Production of Seed, Manufacture of 
Sugar, By-Products. Sugar Cane: Characteristics, 
Countries Which Produce. Propagation, Soils and 
Fertilizers. Production, Extracting the Juice, Making 
the Sugar. 

Fiber Plants 437 

Cotton: Description and Classification, importance, 
feoils and Fertilizers, Growing the Crop, Marketing and 
Returns, Uses, Diseases and Insects. Flax. Hemo 
Other Fiber Plants. 

Tobacco 4g J 

Origin and History. Botany. Composition. ' Types. 
Importance. Soils and Fertilizers. Preparing the Seed 
Bed. Sowing the Seed. Preparing the Field. Setting 
the Plants. Cultivation. Topping. Harvesting. Cur- 
ing. Stripping and Grading. Marketing. Returns 
Rotation. Insects and Diseases. Selection of Seed. 

PART V— CONCLUDING CHAPTERS 
Rotation of Crops 475 

Definition. Origin. How Rotations Help. What a 

Rotation Should Contain. Suggestive Rotations. 
Weeds 493 

Definition. Need of the Study.' ' Classes *of Weeds. 

Damage from Weeds. Benefits from Weeds. How 

Weeds Spread. Methods of Eradication. 



FIELD CROPS 



PART I— INTRODUCTION 



CHAPTER I 
CLASSIFICATION OF FIELD CROPS 

1. Introduction. The cultivation of crops is one of the 
first evidences of a permanent civiHzation. Savages Uve 
on the spoils of the hunt and on such fruits, nuts, and other 
vegetable products as nature supplies. Some of the wander- 
ing tribes in the beginnings of civilization domesticated the 
horse, the ox, and the sheep; but these animals were herded 
on the natural pasture lands, and the tribes moved from 
place to place with them as the grasses furnished or failed to 
furnish pasture for their herds and flocks. The next stage 
in civilization was the growing of plants for their seeds and 
fruits to assure the food supply of the tribe and to furnish 
forage for the domesticated animals. A natural result of 
this production of crops was the storage of these products 
for use during winter and against times of famine. Crop pro- 
duction required a more or less fixed habitation for men, as 
the crop had to be protected from the depredations of animals 
and of hostile tribes from the time of its planting till harvest, 
while permanent storehouses for the food supply had to be 
built and guarded. The building of permanent habitations 
and the beginnings of home life can thus be traced directly 

to the cultivation of crops. 

11 



12 FIELD CROPS 

2. Agriculture and Horticulture. Agriculture, in the 
original sense, meant field culture, while horticulture meant 
the growing of crops within a garden or inclosure. Both 
words are from the Latin. The difference in terms is due to 
the fact that the Roman farmers hved within walled inclo- 
sures, the better to protect themselves and their stores of 
food from their enemies. The larger areas in crops, the food 
grains and the forage for animals, were outside the walls, 
and the tilhng of these crops was agriculture, from ager, 
field, and cultura, culture or cultivation. The fruit and 
vegetable crops, which required only small areas and were 
given special care, were grown within the walls and their 
tilling was horticulture, from hortus, yard or inclosure, and 
cultura. In modern times, however, agriculture has come 
to have a broader meaning, including all the operations of 
the farm, such as stock raising, the production of field crops, 
horticulture, and the manufacture of dairy and other prod- 
ucts. The tilling of the soil and the production of field crops 
are now usually included under the term ''agronomy." 

3. Cultivated Plants. The number of cultivated plants 
other then ornamental, according to De Candolle in his 
''Origin of Cultivated Plants," is about two hundred and 
fifty. Of these, four fifths are natives of the Old World. 
Seventy-seven are cultivated for their fruits, sixty-six for 
their seeds, and sixty-five for their stems or leaves.' Most 
of the remainder are grown for their underground parts, 
which may be thickened roots, as the beet, or tubers, as the 
potato. 

4. Field Crops. In this book, only those crops which are 
ordinarily grown in large areas under field culture (the "agri- 
culture" of the Romans) are included. In general, extensive 
rather than intensive methods are used in the cultivation of 
field crops. This rule does not always hold true. The 
most careful and intensive methods are used in the culture 
of sugar beets and of some types of tobacco, while fruits and 



CLASSIFICATION OF FIELD CROPS 13 

vegetables that find a wide market are sometimes grown in 
large areas by extensive, or field, methods. 

5. Classification of Field Crops. It is rather difficult to 
make a definite classification of field . crops, for certain uses 
may be made of a certain crop under one set of conditions 
and other and very different uses under another. New uses 
are continually being made of the various crops, so that a 
classification made now might be materially wrong in a few 
years. The principal field crops can, however, be included 
in some one of the following classes: Grain, hay and forage, 
fiber, tuber, root, sugar plants, and stimulant. This classi- 
fication is based in part on the portions of the plants which 
are used, and in part on the uses to which they are put. 
Medicinal plants and a few others of a miscellaneous nature 
are not grown to any considerable extent and need not be con- 
sidered at length. 

6. Relative Importance. The 1910 census reports show 
that the total area in field and garden crops in the United 
States was, in 1909, 311,000,000 acres, of which all but about 
10,000,000 acres were in field crops. These 10,000,000 
acres were devoted to garden and orchard crops. The to- 
tal area of improved farm land was more than 478,000,000 
acres, leaving something like 167,000,000 acres in pastures 
and improved woodlands. Of the 311,000,000 acres in field 
crops, about 191,000,000 acres, or about 61 per cent, were 
in grain crops; 72,000,000 acres, or about 23 per cent, in 
hay and forage crops ; about 10 per cent in fiber crops, and the 
remainder in tuber, root, sugar, stimulant, and miscellaneous 
crops. 

VALUE AREA 

FORAGE HBI^HH 
FIBER ■■ 
ALL OTHERS ■ 

Figure 1. — Relative areas and values of the important classes of farm crops. 




14 FIELD CROPS 

m 

Of the total value of $5,487,000,000 for all crops, as re- 
ported for the Census of 1910', approxhnately $2,746,000,000 
or 50 per cent, was gram crops; $824,000,000 or about 15 
per cent, hay and forage crops; and $825,000,000, or about 

15 per cent, fiber crops. The estimated value of all grain 
crops in 1917, according to the Federal Bureau of Crop Es- 
timates, was $7,211,000,000, due to greatty increased prices 
for all farm products. The value of the cotton crop was 
$1,517,000,000 and of the hay and foragecrop, $1,567,000,000. 
Assuming that the grain, cotton, and hay crops in 1917 rep- 
resented 80 per cent of the value of all crops, as was the case 
in 1909, the total value of all crops in 1917 was approximately 
$13,620,000,000, about 148 per cent more than in 1909. 
Dividing the total value of crops in 1909 by 6,361,502, the 
number of farms in the United States that year, gives an 
average value of crops per farm of $863, as compared with 
$523 per farm in 1899. 

7. Grain Crops. A grain crop is one which is grown 
principally for the production of its seeds. The most impor- 
tant grains are the cereals, which are grasses grown for their 
seeds. The principal cereals in the United States are 
corn, wheat, oats, barley, rye, and rice. Millet and sorghum 
are also cereals, though some types of these two crops are 
grown for forage rather than for grain. Buckwheat and 
flax are the only important grains which are not cereals, un- 
less such crops as peas and beans are included. Field peas, 
cowpeas, and soy beans are usually grown for forage or green 
manure, but may be harvested for their seeds. The area 
in corn, wheat, oats, barley, rye, fiax, rice, and buckwheat in 
1909, according to the Census figures, was 191,300,000 acres; 
the total production was 4,500,298,000 bushels, and the total 
value, $2,726,827,000. In 1917 these figures for the same 
crops were increased to 225,984,000 acres, 5,728,939,000 

iThe census is known as the census of 1910, but the figures of crop yields 
and values are for the previous year, 1909. 



GRAIN CROPS 



15 



bushels, and $6,881,900,000, respectively. The acreage, pro- 
duction, and value of each of these crops in 1917 are shown 
in Table I. 

Table I. Acreage, production, and value of each of the important 
grain crops in the United States in 1917, and the total for all grain 
crops. 



Crop 


Acreage 


Production 


Value 


Corn 


A cres 

119,755,000 

45,941,000 

43,572,000 

8,835,000 

4,102,000 

964,000 

1,809,000 

1,006,000 

225,984,000 


Bushels 

3,159,494,000 

650,828,000 

1,587,286,000 

208,975,000 

60,145,000 

36,278,000 

8,473,000 

17,460,000 

5,728,939,000 


Dollars 

4,053,672,000 


Wheat 

Oats 


1,307,418,000 
1,061,427,000 


Barley 

Rye 

Rice 

Flax 


237,539,000 

100,025,000 

68,717,000 

25,148,000 


Buckwheat 

Totals 


27,954,000 
6,881,900,000 



The improved farm land in the United States in 1909 
was 477,424,000 acres. Of this total, 40.09 per cent was m 
grain crops, as follows: Corn, 20.61 per cent; wheat, 9.28 
per cent; oats, 7.36 per cent; barley, 1.61 per cent; rye, 0.46 
per cent; flax, 0.44 per cent; buckw^heat, 0.18 per cent; and 
rice, 0.15 per cent. The acreage of improved farm land 
in 1917 is not definite^ known, but it was of course larger 
than in 1909. The acreage of wheat in 1917 was abnormally 
low on account of losses from winterkilling. Otherwise, 

Table II. The relative importance of the corn, wheat, oats, barley, 
and other grain crops of the United States, as indicated by the percent- 
ages of the total acreage, production and value of all grain crops 
in 1917. 



Crop 



Corn 

Wheat 

Oats 

Barley 

Other Grains 



Acreage 


Production 


Production 


in bushels 


in pounds 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


52.99 


55.15 


62.50 


20.33 


11.34 


13.79 


19.28 


27.71 


17.94 


3.91 


3.65 


3.54 


3.49 


2.15 


2.23 



Value 



Per cent 

58.90 

19.00 

15.42 

3.45 

3.23 



16 



FIELD CROPS 



the proportionate acreage in the various crops was about the 
same as in 1909. The percentage of each of the important 
grain crops in 1917 as compared with the total of all grains in 
acreage, yield, and value are shown in Table II. 




Figure 2. — Abundant farm crops and prosperous, well-tilled farms result when 
grain and stock farming are wisely combined. 

8. Forage Crops. Next to the grains, forage crops are 
of most importance. A forage plant is one which is fed to 
stock in the green state or when cured into hay or fodder. 
The leaves and stems of the whole plant may be used. In 
addition to the harvested hay and fodder crops, this class 
includes the pasture .plants. The total area in harvested 
forage crops in 1909 was 71,915,000 acres, or 15.06 per cent 
of the total acreage of improved farm land. The production 
of hay and forage was 97,147,000 tons, and the value of this 
forage was $822,476,000. No definite value can be placed 
on the acreage in pasture, which is much greater than the 
acreage in harvested forage crops. 



FIBERS, TUBERS, ROOTS 17 

Nearly all forage crops may be included in one of two 
general classes, the grasses and the legumes. The first 
includes timothy, blue grass, redtop, brome grass, Bermuda 
grass, Johnson grass, and all similar crops; the legumes 
include such crops as alfalfa, red clover, white clover, cow- 
peas, soy beans, Japan clover, and field peas. Most of these 
are grown ordinarily for forage, either as hay or pasture 
crops, though a few, such as field peas, cowpeas, soy beans, 
field beans, and peanuts, may be grown for their seeds. 

Of the nearly 72,000,000 acres in harvested hay and forage 
crops reported by the Census of 1910, 27.17 per cent was in 
mixed timothy and clover meadow; 23.45 per cent in wild, 
salt, or prairie grasses, and 20.4 per cent in timothy alone. 
Alfalfa occupied 6.54 per cent of this area; clover alone, 3.4 
per cent; grains cut green for hay, 5.92 per cent; and coarse 
fodder, such as sorghum and fodder corn, 5.69 per cent. 

9. Fibers. The fiber crops grown in the United States 
are cotton, flax, and hemp. Of these three, cotton is by far 
the most important. Its cultivation is confined to the 
southeastern portion of the country, including Texas and 
Oklahoma. The cotton crop ranks second in value of all 
our field crops, being surpassed only by corn, though wheat 
and hay often almost equal it. Flax is grown principally 
for grain; its use as fiber is merely incidental. Hemp is pro- 
duced in a limited way in a few scattered areas. 

10. Tubers. The only important tuber crop is the 
potato, sometimes locally known as the Irish, or white, 
potato to distinguish it from the sweet potato, which is a 
root, not a tuber. This is one of our important food crops, 
the production in 1917 being 442,536,000 bushels, valued at 
$543,865,000. It occupies about three fourths of the area of 
improved farm land, and ranks sixth in value among our 
field crops. 

11. Roots. The principal root crop of the United States 
is the sweet potato, which was grown on 953,000 acres in 



18 FIELD CROPS 

1917, with a production of 87,141,000 bushels. Other root 
crops are grown principally for stock feeding, as the mangel, 
carrot, turnip, and rutabaga. No figures are given for the 
annual production of these crops by the Bureau of Crop 
Estimates, but in 1909 they occupied only 18,916 acres, with 
a production of 253,533 tons. The sugar beet is a root crop 




Figure 3. — A field of well-cultivated sugar beets, our most important root crop. 

which has grown to be of great importance for the produc- 
tion of sugar. It is discussed under the heading of sugar- 
crops in Chapter XXIII. 

12. Sugar Crops. Two important sugar crops are grown 
in the United States, the sugar cane and the sugar beet. 
Sugar cane is much the older source of sugar. The develop- 
ment of the sugar beet industry in America is comparatively 
recent, and it is only in the last few years that the produc- 
tion of beet sugar has surpassed that of cane sugar in the 
United States. The cultivation of sugar cane is limited 
practically to Louisiana and Texas, though the crop is 
grown generally over the South for sirup production. The 
sugar beet is grown over a wide range of country, from New 
York to California. The production of cane sugar in the 



USES OF CROPS 19 

United States in 1917 was 235,000 short tons, while that 
of beet sugar, amounted to 765,000 short tons. 

13. Stimulants and Sedatives. The only stimulant or 
sedative crop which is grown to any extent in the United 
States is tobacco. This crop was grown on 1,295,000 acres 
in 1909, or 0.27 per cent of our improved farm lands. The 
production amounted to 1,055,765,000 pounds, valued at 
$106,000,000 making it rank seventh in value among our 
field crops. 

14. Miscellaneous and Medicinal Crops. None of the 
miscellaneous and medicinal crops is grown on a large scale. 
Among them may be mentioned broomcorn, hops, the castor 
bean, mustard, and various kinds of mint. 

15. The Uses of Crops. The principal uses of field croi>s 
are to supply food and clothing for humanity, to feed ani- 
mals, to maintain or to restore the vegetable matter and the 
fertility of the soil and to prevent the loss of fertility through 
erosion or other means. The principal food crops of the 
United States are wheat, corn, rice, potatoes, and sweet 
potatoes. Other crops which are used to a greater or less 
extent for human food are oats, barley, rye, buckwheat, the 
sugar beet, and sugar cane. The use of barley, rye, and 
oats as human food in the United States has increased 
enormously since our entrance into the world war in 1917. 
The plants which supply material for clothing are cotton 
and flax. Many plants furnish food for man indirectly by 
being fed to animals, to be transformed into meat, butter, 
and milk. Corn, oats, barley, rye, and the grasses and clovers 
are the important food crops for the domestic animals 
which do useful work for man or furnish him with food. 
Some crops maintain or add to the fertility of the soil by 
supplying the vegetable matter necessary for the continu- 
ance of plant growth. Others, by providing a soil cover 
which prevents washing, leaching, and other natural losses, 
help to retain the fertility for the production of useful crops. 



20 FIELD CROPS 

16. The Right Crops to Grow. The choice of field crops 
for a given farm or locahty depends to some extent on the 
cUmate and soil conditions, the kind of farming, and the 
proximity of the market. Chmate limits the production of 
some crops. Cotton, for instance, can be grown profitably 
only where the summers are long and hot. Winter wheat 
may thrive where spring wheat is wholly unprofitable. 







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Figure 4. — By far the largest part of the corn crop is fed on the farm and 
marketed in the concentrated form of animal products. 

Some crops grow best on a sand}^ soil; others, on clay. We 
can materially change the nature of a soil bj^ tillage, drainage, 
and the application of fertilizers, so as to make it suitable for 
many crops, but soil types limit to some extent the growth 
and profitableness of some of our most important crop plants. 
The quality and value of tobacco are influenced more by 
the nature of the soil on which it is grown than by any other 
factor. It is usually a good plan to follow the general prac- 
tice of a neighborhood in choosing the crops to grow, though 
a new crop may sometimes be introduced with profit. 

The use which is to be made of a crop is a decided factor 
in its choice. On a dairj^ farm, forage crops are of prime 
importance. The selection of these crops and the relative 
areas to be devoted to them depend on the special methods 
which are followed. Some crops are suitable for pasture, 



DIVERSIFICATION OF CROPS 



21 



others for hay, and still others for cutting for green feed 
(soiling). On a farm where beef or pork is produced, the 
growing of grain is often more important than the produc- 
tion of forage. On a grain or cotton farm, forage production 
is of Httle consequence, except to furnish feed for the neces- 
sary work animals. Market facilities are often a deciding 




Figure 5. — On the way to market. Beef represents farm crops converted into a 
form that is more useful to man.l 



factor in the selection of crops; for bulky crops like hay might 
be produced profitably for a near-by market, while the 
profit would be consumed by the transportation charges if 
it were necessary to haul the product a considerable dis- 
tance. It is usually advantageous to market crops in a 
condensed form. Feeding forage and grain crops and mar- 
keting them in the form of live stock or live-stock products 
help to keep up the fertility of the soil if the manure is util- 
ized, while the expense of marketing is reduced. 

17. Diversification. It is not often safe to depend 
entirely on a single crop. It is sometimes desirable to make 
a specialty of a crop, and to become known as a producer of 
high quality oats or corn or cotton or some other product of 



22 FIELD CROPS 

unusual excellence. This plan often results in materially 
increased profits, but only a portion of the farm should be 
devoted to any particular crop each year. It is often the 
case that unfavorable conditions which cause a partial or 
complete failure of one crop may be suitable for another. 
In diversity of crops there is safety. Some of the reasons 
for diversification and systematic crop sequence are given 
in the chapter on Crop Rotation. 

REFERENCES 

Domesticated Animals and Plants, Davenport. 

Origin of Cultivated Plants, De Candolle. 

Cereals in America, Hunt. 

Field Crop Production, Livingston. 

Productive Farm Crops, Montgomery. 

Geography of the World's Agriculture, Finch and Baker. 



CHAPTER II 
THE GROWTH OF PLANTS 

18. Introduction. It is neither desirable nor necessary 
to set down in detail the processes which are involved in 
the germination of seeds and the growth of plants, the uses 
of the different elements of plant food, and the effects of til- 
lage, drainage, and other factors on crop production. The 
study of growth processes is more properly a part of the work 
in botany, while plant food, cultivation, moisture supply, 
and other subjects of similar nature may best be discussed 
along with the study of soils. A brief outline of the way in 
which plants grow, however, should be of value to the stu- 
dent or the producer of field crops, in affording a better under- 
standing of man}^ of the cultural methods and other matters 
which will be detailed in the discussion of each crop. 

THE SEED AND ITS GERMINATION 

19. What the Seed Is. A seed is a reproductive body 
produced by flowering plants. It contains an embrj^o 
plantlet and usually an amount of plant food, all surrounded 
by one or more seed coats. Nearly all field crops are grown 
from seed, though a few, such as potatoes, sweet potatoes, 
and sugar cane, are grown from divisions of the roots or 
stalks. The seed consists of a minute plant, the embiyo, 
and the store of the plant food which surrounds it. This 
embryo may be seen very readily in a pea or bean. If the 
seeds of these plants are soaked in water for a few hours, the 
skin, or outer protective covering, may be removed easily. 
If the halves are then separated, a minute plantlet will be 
found adhering to one of them. This is the live portion of 
the seed, which, under proper conditions, will start into 

23 



24 FIELD CROPS 

growth and produce a mature plant. This plantlet, or embryo, 
is attached to both halves of the seed in its natural state, 
and forms a sort of hinge between them. The embryo con- 
sists of two parts, the plumule, which grows upward and 
forms the stem and leaves, and the radicle, which grows 
down into the soil and forms the roots. The thick, fleshy 
portions of the seed consist largely of starch, which, as 
growth begins, is changed to a form which can be used by 
the embryo, and which supports the plantlet till it can form 
roots and leaves of its own and obtain its food from the soil 
and the air. 

20. Good Seed. Seed, to be of value, must be viable, 
or ''live." Its viability, or power to germinate and produce 
strong, healthy plants, depends on the plant which bore it, 
its maturity, its age, and the conditions under which it has 
l^een kept. The plant which bore the seed must have been 
strong and healthy, or the seed will be weak and lacking 
in vigor. Live seed must be fully matured. The embryo is 
not wholly developed in unripe or immature seed, and the 
supply of plant food is less than in mature seed. Good seed 
is usually fresh seed. Crop plants differ greatly in the length 
of time during which they retain their viability, but the vigor 
and strength of germination usually decrease rapidly after 
the seed is two years old. The conditions under which the 
seed has been kept are also of material effect. Ordinarily, 
seed should be well cured, and kept in a dry place where it 
wdll not freeze. Many seeds, however, are not injured by 
frost if they are fully cured and dry when frozen. 

21. Germination. Seeds germinate or start into growth 
under certain conditions. The essentials for germination 
are warmth, air, and moisture. There can be no growth 
below the freezing point, and most seeds germinate very 
slowly, if at all, below 40 degrees Fahrenheit. The ''opti- 
mum" temperature, or that at which seeds germinate best, 
varies with different kinds of seeds, but the range is compar- 



PLANTING THE SEED 



25 



atively narrow for any one kind. The optimum temperatm'e 
for most of the small grains is around 80° Fahrenheit, though 
germination begins at about 40°. Cotton and corn grow 
best around 95°, and cotton v/ill not germinate at all much 
below 55°. Air is necessary for germination; for oxygen, 
which is an important constituent of air, is needed for certain 
chemical changes which take place in the plant food stored 
in the seed. Moisture is also needed, for these changes 
take place only when v/ater is present; it also furnishes a 
medium by Vv^hich the food supply is carried to all parts of 
the young plant. Plant food from outside sources is not 
necessary for germination, nor is hght. These are required 
for continued growth, but germination will take place with- 
out them. (See laboratory exercises at the end of this 
chapter.) YVlien planted in the soil, the radicle naturally 
goes down, while the plumule pushes up to the hght, no 
matter in which position the seed is planted. 

22. Planting the Seed. To apply these facts in a practi- 
cal way, we can readily see that it is useless to plant most 
seeds till the soil and the air are warm, though such plants 
as oats and wheat grow best at fairly cool temperatures. 
For this reason, they can be sown much earlier than cotton 
or corn can be planted. The soil should be fine and mellow, 
and the seed should not be covered too deeply, otherwise the 
necessary supply of air will be shut off and the supply of 
plant food in the seed will not be sufficient to enable the 
young plant to reach the surface. A soil that is cloddy or 
crusted is unfavorable for germination, as it is more diffi- 
cult for the tender shoots to force their way through it. 
The depth of covering and the fineness of the soil desirable 
for best results depend largely on the size of the seed and the 
consequent store of plant food it contains. Seed must be 
planted deep enough so that it does not dry out after germi- 
nation starts, yet not so deep that the plantlet will have 
difficulty in reaching the surface. Such coarse seeds as corn 



26 



FIELD CROPS 



and peas should be planted deeper than clover and grass seed ; 
less care is also required in the preparation of the seed bed. 
Very fine seeds, like tobacco, may best be sown by sprink- 
ling them on the surface of a very fine seed bed and pressing 

the seeds into the earth 
with a board. 

Too much water is 
undesirable, for it not 
only excludes the air 
from the soil but 
causes the seed to rot. 
On the other hand, a 
dry soil does not con- 
tain moisture enough 
so that the seed can 
take up enough to start 
or develop the neces- 
sary growth. The right 
kind of seed bed is a 
fine, moist, mellow one 
— which does not dry 
out readily and yet 

Figure 6.— A poorly drained field Good drain- alloWS plenty of air tO 
age, permitting the air to penetrate the soil, '^ ^ 

is an essential condition for the germination reach SprOUtiug Secds. 
of seed and the growth of plants. ^ '^ 




WHAT THE. LEAVES DO 

23. Assimilation. The leaves are the laboratory, or the 
workroom, of the plant. Three important processes are 
carried on in this workroom. These are assimilation, res- 
piration, and transpiration. By assimilation, the tissues 
of the plant are built up. The carbon dioxide of the air 
is taken in through the leaf membranes and combined with 
water to make starch. This process takes place only in the 
presence of sunlight and only in the green parts of the plant. 
The green coloring matter (chlorophyll) is of importance to 



TRANSLOCATION 27 

the growth of the plant, as'it absorbs the rays of Ught. These 
light rays have the power to spUt up carbon dioxide into its 
parts, carbon and oxygen, so that the plant can utiUze the 
carbon and set free the oxygen. This process wholly ceases 
in darkness, and proceeds much more slowly on dark days or 
in shady locations than in full sunhght. This explains why 
most plants grow better in the open than in the shade. The 
taking up of carbon dioxide and giving off of oxygen also 
accounts in a measure for the purer air of country districts 
where trees and growing things abound. The percentage of 
carbon dioxide in the air in a crowded city is often double 
that in the country. 

24. Translocation. If the leaves made starch contin- 
ually during the daylight hours and it remained where it 
was manufactured, they would soon become thick and bulky 
and their stems would be unable to support them. As in 
most good factories, however, a means is provided of taking 
the manufactured product and cariying it to other parts 
of the plant. This is a part of the process of assimilation, 
and is called translocation. It takes place during the hours 
of darkness. Starch itself is not directly soluble in water, 
but the leaf cells contain substances called enzymes, which 
change the starch to sugar, and, as every one knows, sugar 
is readily soluble. The sugar is then taken up in the sap 
and carried to the stem or seeds or roots, where it is stored. 

Many plants which live from year to year store large 
quantities of food in their roots over winter and are thus 
able to start into long growth very early the following 
spring. If no leaves are produced, no starch can be made 
and hence none can be stored in the roots. This fact sup- 
plies us with an excellent method of fighting weeds Uke quack 
grass and Canada thistle, which are serious weed pests largely 
on account of the food they store and the resulting vigor 
of their growth. If these plants are prevented from reaching 
the light by continuous cultivation, they will be unable 



28 ^ FIELD CROPS 

to store additional food, while each attempt at growth 
reduces the supply in the roots. Eventually this will become 
exhausted and the plant will die. We can readily see that 
a plant must be well supplied with leaves in order to produce 
a good crop of seed or fruit, for the leaves furnish the starch 
from which a large part of the matter in these seeds and 
fruits is made. If the leaves are destroyed by insects or 
disease or in any other manner, the production of seed is 
naturally lessened. 

25. Respiration. The process of respiration is in large 
measure exactly the opposite of assimilation. It is con- 
stantly taking place in all parts of the plant, just as ani- 
mals must breathe continually to live. By this process a 
portion of the carbon of the plant is oxidized, or changed 
back to carbon dioxide; but this change is much less rapid 
than the formation of starch during the day by the leaves, 
else there could be no growth or increase in weight by the plant. 
Plants are giving off carbon dioxide constantly, but the vol- 
ume given off during the day is much less than that taken 
up, so that the air is purified. At night, no carbon dioxide 
is taken up, while the process of respiration continues to 
give it off. For this reason, the air is purer at the close of 
a sunshiny summer day than it is the following morning. 
For this reason, also, growing plants are not desirable in a 
sleeping room at night, though they help to purify the air 
in the house during the day. 

26. Transpiration. The third important work of the 
leaves is the giving off of water, or transpiration. On the 
green, growing portions of the plant, but more particularly 
on the under side of the leaves, are minute pores, or stomata. 
It is through these pores that the plant takes in carbon dioxide 
and gives off oxygen in the assimilation process and also 
gives off carbon dioxide in the respiration process. These 
pores are ordinarily open so that water passes from them 
freely in the form of vapor. When the supply of moisture 



ROOTS AND THEIR USES 29 

which can be obtained from the roots decreases, or the air 
conditions are such that water is drawn from the plant more 
rapidly than it can be supplied by the roots, these stomata 
gradually close, thus checking transpiration and tending to 
maintain the proper quantity of water in the leaves and 
tissues of the plant. Some plants possess the power of re- 
taining their water content to a marked degree and are able 
to Hve with a very small water supply. Cacti and other 
desert plants have this characteristic, and the sorghums 
are a,mong the most drought-resistant of cultivated crops. 
The quantit}^ of water transpired by plants during their 
period of growth is enormous. It is estimated that corn 
gives off 270 pounds of water for every pound of dry matter 
which is produced, while nearly twice this quantity is tran- 
spired by oats in the making of a pound of dry matter. The 
quantity transpired varies with the kind of plant and the 
climatic conditions. Where evaporation is very rapid, the 
quantity of water required by plants is greatly increased. 

THE ROOTS AND THEIR USES 

27. What the Root Is. The root is the portion of .the 
plant below the surface of the ground, by which the plant 
maintains its position. The roots hold firmly to the soil 
and prevent the plant from being blown from place to place. 
Some plants, like clover and alfalfa, have taproots which 
extend straight down into the soil, though they may be 
changed somewhat in direction by obstacles or by supplies 
of air, water, or plant food. From these taproots, branches 
are sent out which spread through the upper portions of 
the soil. Other plants, like wheat and corn, send out several 
fibrous roots with many branches which extend into the 
soil in all directions. Roots are of many kinds and shapes, 
from the fibrous ones of the grasses to the long, slender tap- 
root of alfalfa and the heavy, thickened root of the mangel 
and sugar beet. 



30 FIELD CROPS 

28. How the Root Grows. All roots are alike in that 
they end in a rather hard, pointed portion about a quarter of 
an inch long called the root cap. It is by means of this root 
cap that the young, tender root forces its way between the 



r 


3 


^^^^^1 




M 




m 




m 




i 


1 




^1 


m 



Figure 7. — Roots of young oat plants. Notice the abundance of root hairs; 
also the growing tips, which push through the soil. 

soil particles. The lengthening of the root takes place just 
back of the root cap rather than along the entire length, so 
that the root is enabled to find its way around obstacles, such 
as pebbles and other impervious objects in the soil. It is 
evident that a fine, mellow soil is important for the free 
growth of roots, as it is more easily penetrated by them. 
Just back of the root cap are small rootlets, or root hairs, 
which are the feeding roots of the plant. These root hairs 
come into very close contact with the soil particles, as will 
be found when a plant is dug up and the earth is washed from 



NEEDS OF ROOTS 31 

the roots carefully. It will be very hard to remove all the 
fine particles of soil from these root hairs, so closely do they 
cling. These root hairs will be found along only a few inches 
of the growing portion of the root just behind the root cap. 

29. Roots Take in Water. It has already been stated 
tliat the leaves of plants give off water by transpiration. 
Naturally, there must be some source of supply from which 
this water is drawn and some means of conveying it to the 
leaves. The source of supply is the moisture in the soil; 

'it is taken in through the roots, whence it passes through the 
stem to the leaves. The inner bark of the root and the stem 
is made up largely of hollow cells placed end to end, which 
make a ready means of passage for this water, or sap, as it is 
ordinarily called after it is taken in by the plant. A shortage 
in the supply of soil moisture is soon evident from the wilting 
which takes place when water is given off more rapidly than 
it can be taken in by the roots. Plants cannot draw all 
the water from the soil. Clay soils will retain more than 
sandy soils. It is easy to see that a reduction of the root sur- 
face lessens the supply of water which the plant can obtain, 
hence cultivating corn so deep that some of the roots are cut 
causes the plants to wilt and checks their growth. The 
gardener removes part of the leaves from his plants and 
prunes his trees in transplanting them so as to reduce trans- 
piration and lessen the danger from wilting, for he knows 
that part of the roots have been broken ofT and those that 
remain cannot supply enough water for the full leaf surface. 

30. Roots Require Air. As with all other living parts of 
the plant, the roots are constantly taking in oxygen and giv- 
ing off carbon dioxide; that is, the process of respiration is in 
progress. Consequently, roots require air. Most plants 
cannot grow in a soil that is so filled with moisture that air 
is largely excluded, though a few plants have become adapted 
to this condition. Plants do not root deeply when there is 
an oversupply of moisture, for it is not necessary for them to 



32 FIELD CROPS 

extend their roots to obtain water, nor is there sufficient air in 
the soil for the healthy growth of roots. Consequently, 
plants in wet locations often suffer first when dry weather 
comes, for their root systems are so small and so shallow 
that they are unable to obtain enough water. For the same 
reason, plants are more likely to be damaged by a drought 
which follows a wet spring than by one succeeding a moder- 
ately dry one. Enough water, but not too much, is essential 
for the best growth of plants. Good drainage helps by tak- 
ing off the surplus water and allowing air to penetrate the 
soil, thus inducing deeper rooting. 

31. Roots Take in Plant Food. When the chemist ana- 
lyzes a plant, he finds many things besides the carbon which 
is taken from the air and the water with which it is com- 
bined to make starch. He finds compounds of nitrogen, 
phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and other substances. Now 
these elements, with the exception of nitrogen, are not to 
be found in the air in appreciable quantities, and the nitro- 
gen of the air is not in a form in which most plants can 
use it. Phosphorus and potassium and the other things are 
to be found in the soil, for soil is simply decayed or disinte- 
grated rock, and these elements are a part of all rocks. The 
surface soil which is penetrated by the roots also contains 
decaying organic matter, and it is from this that plants obtain 
their supply of nitrogen. Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, 
and the other elements can not be taken in by the roots of 
plants and pass through their tissues in a solid state, hence 
they must be in a soluble form so that they can be carried by 
the water which is drawn in by the roots. Most of the com- 
pounds of these elements are not soluble in pure water,* but 
the water in the soil contains some carbon dioxide given off 
by the roots, and this carbon dioxide is an efficient aid in 
dissolving the material in the soil particles. These com- 
pounds of potassium, nitrogen, phosphorus, etc., are known 
as plant food. 



ELEMENTS OF PLANT FOOD 



33 




No treatment 

2590 lbs. hay per acre 



640 lbs. nitrate soda 
320 lbs. acid phosphate 
80 lbs. muriate potash 
7590 lbs. hay per acre 



320 lbs. nitrate soda 
320 lbs. acid phosphate 
SO lbs. muriate potash 
7110 lbs. hay per acre 



Figure 8. — Plenty of nitrogen is essential to good hay crops. The 
function that nitrogen performs is that of constituting a basic element of pro- 
tein, which is an important food factor. Those crops, therefore, that have 
prominent protein values require an adequate amount of nitrogen for the con- 
struction of leaves, stems, and grain. Nitrogen is particularly beneficial to 
grasses, which suffer less from its excess than cereals. 




3— 



20 tons manure 10 tons manure No treatment 

7420 lbs. hay per acre 4350 lbs. hay per acre 2230 lbs. hay per acre 

Figure 9. — Grass makes better use of barnyard manure than any other crop. 



34 FIELD CROPS 

ELEMENTS OF PLANT FOOD AND THEIR USES 

32. Nitrogen. In order to understand the nature and 
uses of the different elements of plant food, we must know 
something of chemistry and of soils. Only the most ele- 
mentary statements regarding them will be made here, how- 
ever, and no attempt will be made to explain the functions or 
forms of these elements. Nitrogen, though present in the 
air, cannot be used by plants in the form in which it occurs 
there. Plants can utilize ''combined" nitrogen only; that 
is, nitrogen combined with some other element or elements. 
The bacteria which live on the roots of certain plants have 
the power of taking nitrogen from" the air and changing it 
into a form in which it is available for the use of the plants 
on which these bacteria live. When the roots or any portion 
of such plants decay in the soil, the nitrogen in them is made 
soluble, and a portion of it becomes available for any plants 
that may subsequently grow in the soil. The air is, there- 
fore, one great sourc© of nitrogen. Another is decaying 
vegetable matter in the soil, which is> acted upon by other bac- 
teria and changed to the nitrate form, in which plants can 
use it. These bacteria are able to work only in warm, moist 
soil which contains plenty of air. They thus supply another 
argument for good tillage and drainage. 

33. Phosphorus. Phosphorus is a part of nearly all 
rocks from which soil is formed, though in many soils the 
quantity is so small that it is soon reduced below the needs 
of crops. In sour, or acid, soils the supply of phosphorus 
is largely in an insoluble form that cannot be used by plants. 
Ordinarily this condition can be corrected by applying lime, 
but on soils which are very acid, as marshes and other low, 
wet lands are likely to be, the application of lime is not 
practical and it is necessary to supply phosphorus in an 
available form in order to grow crops. It is obtained from 
deposits in the soil in certain sections and from stock- 
yards where large numbers of animals are slaughtered, as 



ELEMENTS OF PLANT FOOD 35 

bones are very rich in this element. The ordinary forms 
of phosphate fertihzers are raw bone meal, raw rock phos- 
phate, and acid phosphate. 

34. Potassium. Potassium, or potash, the latter the 
form of potassium to which reference is usually made, is the 
third great element of plant food. Like phosphorus, it is 
present to a greater or less extent in all soils, but sandy soils 
contain less of it than clay and loam soils, while the supply 
in peat and muck is comparatively small. A very large part 
of the potassium in the soil is in a form which is not available 
for the use of plants and, as it becomes available very slowly, 
it occasionally is not present in sufficient quantity for plant 
growth. It is much less likely to be lacking than phosphorus 
or nitrogen, however. The supply of potassium in com- 
mercial fertilizers is obtained from mines, the most important 
of which are in Germany. Sea weed now promises to be 
a source of this element. Wood ashes are also used to 
supply potassium to the soil. 

35. Other Elements. Other elements which are neces- 
sary to plant growth, but which are usually present in all 
soils in sufficient quantity so that no attention need be paid 
to them, are calcium, iron, magnesium, and sulphur. Silicon, 
chlorine, and sodium are also usually present in plants, but 
they do not appear to be necessary for growth. Calcium 
contained in lime corrects the soil acidity, which is harmful 
to most plants; it is also essential to leaf growth. Lime is 
also necessary for the development of the bacteria which 
change the nitrogen of the air and that in decaying vegetable 
matter into forms which can be used by plants. Iron is an 
essential part of the green coloring matter of plants (chloro- 
phyll), without which carbon dioxide cannot be broken up 
and starch manufactured. Lime is the only one of these 
elements which is at all likely to become depleted. Liming 
to correct soil acidity is very commonly practiced in the 
eastern and southern United States. 



36 FIELD CROP 8 

36. Sources of Plant Food. The rocks from which the 
soil is made are the principal source of all the mineral ele- 
ments of plant food. Decaying vegetable matter is also an 
important source, for all the elements of plant food are taken 
up by plants and naturally they are returned to the soil 
when these plants decay. The two most important sources of 
decaying vegetable matter are the plants themselves, either 
the roots and stubble which are left when the crop is har- 
vested or the entire plant which is turned under as green 
manure, and barnyard manure. Barnyard, or stable, manure 
is made up of bedding and parts of plants which are not 
eaten by animals and also of the material in the food they 
consume which they are unable to digest and assimilate, so 
that it is all vegetable matter. When this matter is incor- 
porated in the soil, it is acted upon by bacteria and molds 
and reduced to forms in which it can again be used by plants. 
Another important source of plant food and one which is 
largely used in the eastern and southern states is commercial 
fertilizers. These are composed mostly of refuse animal mat- 
ter from stockyards and of mineral matter which is taken 
from certain soil deposits containing the desired elements. 

37. Humus. The partially decayed vegetable matter in 
the soil is usually called humus. The term humus, however, 
as commonly used, has so many different meanings that it is 
confusing. On this account the term vegetable matter is 
used here, because it includes the fresh supplies of vegetable 
matter, such as roots, stems, and manure, as well as that 
which is partially decayed. The properties usually credited 
to humus are found also in the fresher forms of vegetable 
matter. In addition to supplying a source of plant food, it 
has considerable effect on crop growth in other ways. Soils 
which contain plenty of vegetable matter are easier to work 
than those which are lacking in it, for they hold moisture 
better and are less likely to bake and become cloddy. The 
acid developed by the decomposition of vegetable matter 



VARIATION OF CONTENT 37 

helps to dissolve some of the mineral matter in the soil and 
make it available for plants. The dark color of soils is due 
largely to the presence of an abundance of humus. As dark 
colors absorb the sun's rays more completely than light 
ones, dark soils, or those rich in humus, are warmer than those 
which are lacking in it. It is evident that it is important 
to maintain a plentiful supply of humus in the soil. 

38. Content of the Various Elements at Different Stages. 
Different plants draw on the supply of the various elements 
of plant food in different proportions. They also vary in 
their composition and in their draft on the soil at different 
stages of growth. The quantity of potash, for instance, in 
a crop of wheat increases up to the time when the crop is 
fully headed, after which it decreases till at harvest nearly 
half the potash the plant contained has been lost. This 
potash is washed out by rains and dews or it is returned to 
the soil by way of the roots. The greatest quantity of nitro- 
gen is also to be found in the cereals and grasses at about the 
time when the plants are in blossom; later the nitrogen con- 
tent decreases. The quantity of phosphorus increases as 
long as growth continues and does not noticeably decrease 
at maturity. With other crops which do not dry out when 
ripe, as the potato, there is no loss of any of the elements 
when the plant is mature. The composition of the mature 
plant, however, does not necessaril}^ show the quantity of 
food material which has been used during growth. 

39. When the Different Elements Are Needed. Plants 
differ in the time at which they need the various elements of 
plant food just as they differ in the proportion of these ele- 
ments which they utilize. In general, nitrogen is most 
largely used in vegetative growth (the production of leaves 
and stems) and is drawn on more heavily in the earlier 
stages of growth than toward maturity. Forage crops 
require a specially liberal supply of nitrogen. Phosphorus, 
on the other hand, is an important constituent of seeds and 



38 FIELD CROPS 

fruits, and is used more largely as the plant matures. All 
the elements, however, are used more or less during the 
entire growth of the plant. 

40. Result if an Element Is Lacking. If any one of the 
important elements is lacking, continued healthy growth is 
not possible. If nitrogen is wanting, the growth will be 
slow and stunted and the plants will be yellow and sickly 
in appearance. A shortage in the supply of potash often 
produces weak, flabby plants which are likely to lodge. 
Calcium seems to be necessary for the growth of leaves, and 
iron for the development of the green coloring matter. 
Phosphorus is more necessary for the production of seed than 
for the growth of the stems and leaves, and plants will make 
a larger growth if this element is lacking than if any other of 
the important ones is not supplied. Potash apparently has 
more or less influence on the formation of starch. Potash is 
found most largely in the stems and leaves, and nitrogen and 
phosphorus in the seeds of most plants. 

41. Necessities for the Growth of Plants. To sum- 
marize the preceding paragraphs, plants require air, sunlight, 
water, heat and plant food in order to grow. Air is neces- 
sary to supply carbon for the making of starch and for the 
respiration of plants. Sunhght is required in the manufac- 
ture of starch and other compounds, for plants can break 
carbon dioxide into its parts only in the presence of sun- 
light. Water is needed to combine with the carbon to make 
starch, to act as a carrier of plant food, to evaporate from the 
leaf surfaces and keep the plant from getting too warm, and 
to give rigidity to the cells of the plants. Heat must be 
present in the optimum degree for the best germination. 
Plant food is required to make the different compounds 
which compose the plant. Soil is not necessary for the 
growth of a plant, for many plants will mature in water if 
their positions are constant and the necessaiy plant food is 
supplied. Practically, however, soil is a necessity. 



PRODUCTION OF SEED 



39 




40 



FIELD CROPS 



THE PRODUCTION OF 'SEED 

42. Reason for Seed Production. It is the function of 
nearly all plants to produce seed so as to perpetuate their 
kind. Very frequently man has taken advantage of this 
circumstance and has used the seed for his own purposes. 

It is the seed of corn, wheat, oats, 
lye, and other grains which is used 
as food by man; he also uses the 
seeds, stalks, leaves, and roots of 
many plants to feed domestic ani- 
mals. He uses the lint, or fiber, 
which is attached to the seed of cot- 
ton, and a large variety of products 
are made from the seed it self . Nearly 
all our cultivated crops must be 
■PI w \m grown from the seed every year. 

Hence the subject of seed produc- 
tion is important to the farmer and 
the student of field crops. 

43. Reproductive Organs. The 
flowers are the reproductive organs 
of the plant. They consist usually 
of a protective green covering, the 
calyx; the corolla, a colored portion, the main function of 
which is to attract insects that are of assistance in pollina- 
tion; a number of stamens; and one or more pistils. The 
stamens and pistils are the essential parts for the production 
of seed. The stamen consists of a slender stem, the filament, 
and an enlarged upper portion, the anther; the anther con- 
tains a fine dust, usually yellow in color, the pollen. The 
lower portion of the pistil is the ovary, which later develops 
into the fruit or seeds; the upper portion, usually somewhat 
enlarged, is the stigma; connecting these two is the more or 
less elongated central portion, the style. The style contains 
a slender tube through which the pollen grain grows down 




Figure 11. — Flowers of flax. 



FERTILIZATION 41 

from the stigma to the ovary to fertihze the ovule, or youno; 
seed. On most plants, both stamens and pistils are on the 
same plant and are parts of the same flower. In corn, the 
stamens are borne in the tassel, while the pistillate flowers 
are in the ear, the silks being the styles and stigmas of the 
pistils and the young kernels the ovaries. In some flowers, 
as in the grasses, the calyx and corolla are replaced by scales 
or are wanting. A typical flower in which all the parts are 
readily seen is that of flax. 

44. Fertilization. When the ovules are ready for ferti- 
lization, the stigma becomes moist and sticky so that it 
catches and holds the pollen grains that come in contact 
with it. The anthers open and shed their pollen. It may 
fall directly upon the moist stigmas, or be carried there by 
the wind, by insects, or by other agencies. In any case, a 
pollen grain germinates and grows down the slender tube of 
the pistil from the stigma to the ovary, where it fertilizes the 
ovule. The ovule then develops and eventually matures 
into a seed; if it is not fertilized, it withers away. The char- 
acters of the male and female plants are thus united in the 
embryo of the seed. The ovary may contain one, several, 
or many seeds. In the grains and grasses, it contains one; 
in flax, several, usually five, seeds are produced; in some 
weeds, notably purslane, or '^pussly," the number of seeds 
produced by one flower runs into the hundreds. The grains 
of corn each represent a flower, of which the silk is the pistil. 
The flowers form a compact spike on the cob, or rachis. 

45. Close and Open Fertilization. When a flower is so 
constructed that it is normally fertilized by its own pollen, 
it is said to be close-fertilized. Such are the flowers of oats, 
wheat, barley, and many of the grasses, many of which are 
fertilized before the flowers open. Different varieties of 
these plants may be grown side by side without danger of 
mixing. An open-fertilized flower is one that may be ferti- 
Uzed by poflen from another flower either on the same plant 



42 FIELD CROPS 

or on a different one. In many plants, it may be fertilized 
either by its own pollen or by that from some other flower; 
in some, it must be fertilized by pollen from another flower, 
and the results are better if this flower is on another plant. 
In corn, open pollination is assured, because the pistillate 
and staminate flowers are on different parts of the plant, and 
the pollen is not shed till several days after the ovules on that 
stalk are ready for fertilization, so that corn growing in a 
field is almost certain to be cross-fertilized. As pollen 
is carried some distance by wind, varieties planted near to- 
gether are almost certain to mix if they ''silk'' about the 
same time. 

46. Crosses and Hybrids. A cross is produced by the 
union of two varieties. If Reid's Yellow Dent corn is fertilized 
with pollen of Leaming or Boone County White or any other 
variety, the result is a cross. In the original meaning of the 
word, a hybrid was the product of the union of two species, 
as wheat and rye, but the term is now commonly used in the 
sense of a cross between varieties of the same species. True 
hybrids are seldom fertile; that is, thej^ will not produce 
seed. Thus in the case just mentioned, numerous hybrids 
of wheat and rye have been produced, but in very few cases 
have these hybrids produced seed which would germinate. 
The process of cross-fertilization by artificial means is fre- 
quently used for the production of new varieties. Consid- 
erable care, time, and selection must be devoted to crosses 
in order to get them to "come true," that is, to produce uni- 
formly the type of plant which is desired. 

47. Improvement by Selection. The principle that like 
produces like is used by plant breeders in the improvement 
of varieties. If seed is continually saved from the best indi- 
viduals in a field of wheat or other close-fertilized plant, a 
very noticeable improvement can be effected in a few years. 
In the same way, if the best individuals of open-fertilized 
plants are saved for seed, improvement will result, but care 



IMPROVEMENT BY SELECTION 43 

must be taken to prevent the introduction of pollen from 
inferior plants. Thus an ear of corn may appear to be ex- 
cellent, but some of the kernels may have been fertilized 
by pollen from inferior stalks and the plants they produce 
will be inferior. A large part of this ''bad blood" may be 
eliminated by going through the field when the plants are 
in tassel but before the pollen is shed and pulhng out the tas- 
sels of the weak stalks and others that do not show promise 
-of producing good ears. The improvement of plants is 
very interesting and should receive the attention of many 
more persons than now devote their energies to it. 

LABORATORY AND FIELD EXERCISES 

. Soak several beans or peas in tepid water for 24 hours. Then 
examine them, noting how they have swelled and how easily the outer 
skin may be removed. Separate the halves and examine the embryo 
which remains attached to one of them. At the same time put a few 
beans in ice water and keep the water below 40 degrees, if possible, 
but avoid actual freezing. Note how Uttle the seeds have swelled 
in comparison with the others. Also soak a few beans for the same 
length of time in tepid water containing a spoonful of common salt. 
Note that they have not sw^elled as have those in warm water. Seeds 
have the power of keeping out undesirable solutions and will not germi- 
nate in soils containing any considerable quantity of salts. 

2. Plant several beans in a small box of good soil; plant kernels 
of corn in a similar box. Keep the soil moist, but not wet. In a few 
days the plants will appear. Note how the young shoot of the bean 
has pushed the halves of the seed apart and forced them to the surface, 
while the kernel of corn remained below. Dig up one plant of each 
carefully and note the difference in the root system; also how the young 
corn plant is still attached to the kernel. A few days later note that 
the thick halves of the bean have gradually disappeared; also that the 
corn kernel has decreased till little more than a shell is left. The plant 
is drawing on its supply of food stored in the- seed. Soon the green 
leaves will begin to manufacture food from the air, while the roots will 
draw on the supply in the soil. 

3. Plant beans in another box or pot. As soon as they appear 
above ground, cut off parts of the thick "seed leaves" with a knife, 
being careful not to injure the young plant. Leave one or two plants 



44 FIELD CROPS 

undisturbed. Note that the vigor of growth depends on the quantity 
of plant food available, as indicated by the size of the portions which 
were allowed to remain. Portions of the starchy upper part of the corn 
kernel may be cut away before planting without injuring the germ. 
Cut several kernels in this way. Note effect on germination and growth. 

4. Cut five or six thicknesses of blotting paper the size of a large 
plate, place in the plate and have another plate of the same size to turn 
down over it. Make several of these small germinators and place 
fifty grains of wheat, oats, or barley between the blotting paper in each; 
moisten and keep moist the blotting paper in all but one. (Several 
thicknesses of cloth may be used instead of the blotting paper if desired.) 
Set one of the germinators in a cool place and another where it remains 
at about the ordinary temperature of the room, 70 degrees. Place the 
dry germinator alongside the moist one in the warm room. Set one 
germinator in a warm, light place and another in a warm, dark one. 
Let no germinators become dry except the one which was started that 
way. In five or six days examine all of them and see what has hap- 
pened. Is moisture necessary for germination? Is light? Is heat? 

5. Plant several beans in pots or small boxes of good soil; after the 
plants appear set one box in a cool place, but where it will not freeze; 
put another in a dark room or closet; place the remainder in a warm, 
sunny window. Set one of the pots in the window and let it dry out; 
plimge another in a pan of water to the top. Keep the others moist 
but not wet. In a few days compare the growth which has been made. 
Is light necessary? Is heat? Moisture? Do the roots need air? 

6. If there is sufficient time, a large nmnber of other exercises may 
be worked out, showing that plants need air, light, moisture, plant food, 
and heat; how they utilize these different factors, and the results, if 
any are lacking. Farmers' Bulletin 408, School Lessons in Plant Pro- 
duction, may be obtained free by any teacher and will be very help- 
ful in suggesting useful exercises for the laboratory. The first four 
chapters of A. D. Hall's "The Feeding of Crops and Stock" will be found 
very readable and instructive, as well as suggestive of numerous methods 
of illustrating the germination of seeds and the growth of plants. 

REFERENCES 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Bailey. 

Feeding of Crops and Stock, Hall. 

Field Crop Production, Livingston. 

Productive Farm Crops, Montgomery. 

Farmers' Bulletin 408, School Exercises in Plant Production. 



PART II— GRAIN CROPS 



CHAPTER III 
CORN 

ORIGIN AND DESCRIPTION 

48. Nativity. Corn, Zea mays, is a native of America. 
Though it is a true grass, none of the known native or wild 
grasses resemble it very closely, and the species from which 
it was developed has never been determined. All that is 
known is that it was cultivated by the Indians when America 
was discovered by Columbus. It is generally agreed that 
corn was first introduced into Europe by Columbus on his 
return from his voyage of discovery, and that its growth in 
Europe and Asia has spread from that original importation 
and from later ones from this continent. Corn is reported 
to have been first grown by white people within the present 
limits of the United States in the colony of Virginia in 1608. 

The term ''corn" is used in Europe to designate any 
kind of grain, as wheat, oats, or barlej^, and it was so used 
before the discovery of America. When the cultivation of 
Indian corn, or maize, was introduced, the same term was 
applied to it. The confusion in the meaning of the word 
and the consequent belief that corn was grown in Europe 
before the journej^s of Columbus to the New World are 
doubtless due to this use of the word, which is now legally 
accepted as meaning maize, or Indian corn. It is unani- 
mously conceded that corn is a native American plant, first 
grown and used by the Indians of this hemisphere. Con- 
clusive evidence of its nativity is indicated by its connection 
with mythological and religious ceremonies of the Indians 
and the discovery of ears of corn buried with mummies in 
Peru and Mexico. 

45 



4t> FIELD CROPS 

49. Botanical Characters. Botanically, corn is a grass; 
that is, it belongs to the same family of plants as timothy, 
wheat, and blue grass. The roots are fibrous and spread 
several feet in the ground in all directions, the extent vary- 
ing with the type of soil and the weather conditions. After 
the plant is partly grown, brace roots grow out from one or 
two, and in some cases several of the lower joints. Their 
function is simply to brace the plant, to aid it in with- 
standing the strain caused by the wind. 

The stem, like that of all the common grasses, is made 
up of nodes and internodes, varying greatly in length in 
different varieties and different seasons. The internodes 
are much longer near the top than near the bottom of the 
stalk. The stem, which is flattened or grooved on one side, 
has a hard fibrous coat or outer wall and a soft, spongy 
pith, differing in this respect from the hollow stems of most 
grasses. The height of the plant varies from 2 to 20 or 
more feet; the usual height is from 5 to 10 feet. 

The leaves grow out from the nodes. As in other grasses, 
they clasp the stem in the form of a sheath which fits very 
closely. Where the leaf spreads out from the stalk, the 
sheath clasps about it so tightly that under ordinaiy circum- 
stances water is prevented from getting in between the 
sheath and stem. The blades of the leaves vary in breadth 
from 2 to 4 inches and in length from 2 to 4 feet. The leaves 
have the useful habit of rolling up from the edges when there 
is a shortage of moisture, thus greatly reducing the trans- 
piration from them. 

The male and. female flowers of corn are borne on differ- 
ent parts of the plant. The tassel bears the male flowers 
and the silks are the visible parts of the female flowers. The 
male flower produces the pollen which is to pollinate the 
female flower. As it is produced at the top of the stalk, the 
pollen easily falls by gravity or more commonly it is blown 
from the tassel to the stigma of the female flower. On 



CLASSIFICATION OF CORN 47 

account of the manner of pollination and because many corn 
plants are usually grown together, crossing very generally 
results; that is, pollen from one plant fertilizes the ovaries 
of other plants, so that corn is usually cross-pollinated. 
In fact, this habit is so general that a stalk growing by itself 
seldom, if ever, produces a good ear, because of imperfect fer- 
tilization of the flowers. 

50. Mixing of Varieties. The flowering habits of corn 
make it extremely difficult to maintain pure varieties, as 
they will mix at considerable distances. For this reason 
it is highly desirable for a community to grow but one 
variety. If adjoining farms produce different varieties, 
each is very likely to be mixed with the other. In favorable 
weather, the pollen grains may be carried by the wind at 
least 200 rods, if there is no obstruction in the way. The 
fact that the prevailing winds in the corn belt are from the 
southwest during the season of the year when corn is blos- 
soming is made use of to some extent by locating the seed 
plat from which seed for the next year's crop is to be selected, 
where the wind blows from it to the other corn fields, rather 
than from the other corn fields to it. 

CLASSIFICATION 

51. Variation. All the varieties now so common in every 
section of the country are the result of selection and breed- 
ing from the original Indian types, which were very inferior 
to those grown at the present time. Very little was done to 
improve corn until the middle of the nineteenth century, but 
during the past seventy years improvement has been very 
rapid till at present there are hundreds of named varieties. 
Some of these varieties mature in 90 to 100 days and produce 
small ears with shallow kernels, while others require 140 or 
more days to mature and produce large, deep-kerneled ears. 
In color, corn kernels may be yellow, white, red, black, blue, 
or a mixture of some of these colors and shades. The cobs 



48 



FIELD CROPS 



are either white or red. Most of these colors of kernels 
with the variation of color in the cobs may be found 
occasionally in any of the important classes of corn. 

52. Classes or Types. All the 
more important varieties and types of 
corn may be grouped into one of the 
four following classes, viz. : dent, flint, 
sweet, and pop. Two other classes, 
soft, or flour, and pod, are of little 
practical value in North America, but 
the others have a very important rela- 
tion to the agriculture and commerce 
of the world. 

53. Dent Com. Dent corn is a 
type in which the hard, or horny, part 
of the kernel is at the sides and does 
not extend over the crown as it does 
in flint and pop corn. This arrange- 
ment causes the crown of the kernel 
to shrink at maturity, making an in- 
dentation which distinguishes dent 
corn from other types. This is the 
most important type of corn; prob- 
ably 90 per cent of the total corn crop 
of the world is in this class. The 
characters which make it more valu- 
able than other types are that (1) it 
yields more; (2) it does not produce 
many suckers or tillers; (3) it is easily 
husked; and (4) it is comparatively 
soft and easy for animals to masticate. 

Generally speaking, it is larger and later than flint corn, 
though there are small, early matured varieties of the dent 
type. Ears of dent corn may vary in size from ^j^ to 10 
inches in circumference and from 6 to 12 inches in length. 




Figure 12. — A good ear of 
a small, early variety of 
dent corn adapted to 
the North. 



FLINT CORN 



49 



54. Flint Com. Flint corn ranks next in importance 
to the dent type. The crown of the kernel as well as the 
sides is covered with a hard, horny part which does not 
shrink, or at least shrinks evenly, at maturity. This gives 
each kernel a hard, smooth, flinty appearance, to which the 
name of the type is due. Ears of 
flint corn are usually longer in pro- 
portion to their circumference than 
ears of dent corn. There are fewer 
rows of kernels on the ears, the fur- 
rows between the rows are usually 
wider, and the kernels are compara- 
tively shallow. It is very prolific in 
the production of suckers or stools, 
making it quite valuable as a fodder 
crop, but it does not yield as much 
grain as most of the varieties of the 
dent type. The ears have a larger 
proportion of cob ^ to corn than is 
found in the dent varieties; the shank 
of the ears is usually large, making 
flint corn much harder to husk than 
dent corn. Flint corn is usualty 
earlier in maturing than most dent 
varieties, hence it is specially adapted 
to northern latitudes, but it has little 
agricultural value where the more 
desirable dent varieties thrive. It is 
used to some extent as human food in the form of hominy, 
and is regarded as preferable for cornmeal. 

55. Sweet Com. Sweet corn has practically no hard, 
or horny, endosperm. Consequently, the whole kernel usu- 
ally shrinks at maturity, presenting a shriveled appearance. 
As indicated by its name, its chief characteristic is that it 
contains a higher percentage of sugar than the other types. 

4— 




Figure 13. — Ear of flint 
corn. 



50 



FIELD CROPS 



It is grown chiefly for human food and is highly prized as a 
table vegetable both when green and fresh in the summer 
and when canned or dried for winter use. There are many 
varieties of sweet corn, differing in size and in length of time 

they require to mature. 
The stalks are smaller and 
finer than the stalks of most 
varieties of dent corn. 
Sweet corn is grown very 
little for feed for animals, 
except that it is sometimes 
used for fodder or for early 
fall feed for live stock. 

56. Pop Com. Popcorn 
is grown only as human 
food to be eaten when pop- 
ped; that is, when the ker- 
nels have been puffed by 
heating. It is this peculiar 
character from which it 
gets its name. The kernels 
are covered with a hard, 
flinty covering as are the 
kernels of flint corn; in fact, 
a large proportion of the 
kernel is hard and flinty. 
Some kernels are sharp- 
pointed at the crown, while 
others are rounded and 
smooth hke flint kernels. The kernels, ears and plants 
are very much smaller than the other kinds of corn men- 
tioned.* On this account it is of Httle value for the produc- 
tion of feed for live stock. 

57. Varieties. A study of local varieties is necessary and 
advisable, but there are far too many named varieties in the 




Figure 14. — An ear of sweet corn of the 
Stoweir 3 Evergreen type. A large, 
late variety. 



IMPORTANCE OF THE CROP 51 

United States to make it worth while to attempt an enumera- 
tion of them. Corn is so easily changed by selection that 
one may not be able to recognize a well-known variety after 
some one else has been growing and selecting it for some time. 
This is especially true if it has been grown under different soil 
and climatic conditions from those in which he has seen it 
grow before. On this account, varietal names are not impor- 
tant, but types of corn and their adaptabihty to various 
. conditions must be thoroughly understood by practical corn 
growers. (See Selection of Corn, Sections 121-132.) A few 
of the important and widely distributed varieties of corn are 
Reid's Yellow Dent, Boone County White, Silvermine, Gold- 
mine, Legal Tender, Silver King, Minnesota No. 13, and 
Wisconsin No. 7. 

IMPORTANCE OF THE CROP 

58. World Production. Corn is a tropical plant that can 
withstand very little frost. It seems best adapted, how- 
ever, to the temperate zone and it is here that it reaches its 
most perfect development. The leading countries in the 
production of this crop normally are the United States, 
Austria-Hungary, Argentina, Russia, Egypt, and Australasia, 
in the order named. According to the Bureau of Crop Es- 
timates of the United States Department of Agriculture, the 
average annual world production of corn for the five years 
from 1909 to 1913 was 3,800,000,000 bushels, of which 71 
per cent was produced in the United States. The figures 
from 1909 to 1913 are given in preference to those for later 
3^ears, which are of necessity incomplete. 

59. Production in the United States. The average acre- 
age, production, yield, and value of corn in the different 
states for the years from 1908 to 1917 are shown in Table 
III. The relative production is shown graphically in Figure 15. 

60. Relative Importance. Corn is grown on a larger acre- 
age and produces a larger total yield than any of the other 



52 



FIELD CROPS 



Table III. Average annual acreage, production, value, and acre yield 
of corn hi various states for the ten years from 1908 to 1917, inclusive. 



State 



111 

Iowa 

Mo 

Nebr 

Ind 

Ohio 

Texas 

Kans 

Ky 

Tenn 

Minn 

Okla 

S. Dak.. . 

Penn 

Ga 

Wis 

Mich 

N. C 

Va 

Ark 

All others . 

U. S 



Acreage 
A cres 

10,295,000 
9,896,000 
7,223,000 
7,580,000 
4,971,000 
3,820,000 
6,856,000 
7,526,000 
3,560,000 
3,368,000 
2,352,000 
4,810,000 
2,607,000 
1,467,000 
3,984,000 
1,644,000 
1,705,000 
2,757,000 
2,028,000 
2,513,000 

14,800,000 



105,672,000 



Production 



Bushels 

352,637,000 

351,409,000 

194,219,000 

185,899,000 

180,470,000 

146,969,000 

130,195,000 

128,266,000 

96,184,000 

84,691,000 

76,226,000 

74,787,000 

71,070,000 

57,936,000 

57,611,000 

54,513,000 

53,657,000 

51,614,000 

51,586,000 

51,267,000 

309,228,000 

2,760,434,000 



Farm value 
Dec. 1 



Dollars 

215,994,000 

206,006,000 

128,425,000 

113,325,000 

113,351,000 

97,798,000 

100,587,000 

79,209,000 

68,530,000 

62,759,000 

46,334,000 

44,810,000 

43,700,000 

46,514,000 

54,619,000 

38,807,000 

39,688,000 

48,918,000 

44,408,000 

41,397,000 

268,165,000 



Acre 
yield 



Bushels 

33.9 

34.9 

26.8 

24.5 

36.3 

38.4 

18.9 

17.5 

27.5 

25.2 

32.6 

15.8 

27.7 

39.8 

14.7 

33.3 

31.7 

18.9 

25.5 

20.5 

20.9 



1,903,514,000 



Per cent 
of total 

Per cent 

12.78 

12.73 

7.04 

6.73 

6.54 

5.32 

4.72 

4.65 

3.47 

3.07 

2.76 

2.71 

2.57 

2.10 

2.09 

1.97 

1.94 

1.87 

1.87 

1.86 

11.21 



26.0 



100.00 



ILLINOIS 

IOWA 

MO. 

NEB. 

INDIANA 

OHIO 

TEXAS 

KANSAS 

KY. 

TENN. 

MINN . 

OKLA. 

S. DAK. 

PENN. 

GEORGIA 

All Others 



■ 7.04% 
I 6.73% 

6.54% 



5.32% 





4.72% 
4.65% 
3.47% 
3.07% 
2.76% 
2.71% 
2.57% 
2.10% 
2.09% 



1 12.78% 
12.73% 



20.72% 



Figure 15. — The percentage of the corn crop of the United States produced in the 
states of greatest production (1908-1917). 



STATISTICS 



53 



cereals, and the product is of greater value than any other 
crop in the United States. Table IV, which shows the aver- 
age acreage, yield, and farm value of some of the leading 
farm crops during the five years from 1913 to 1917, inclusive, 
effectively illustrates their relative importance. 

Table IV. Average acreage, yield, and value of the leading farm crops 
in the United States during the five years from 1913 to 1917, inclusive. 



Crop 



Corn 

Hay 

Wheat 

Cotton 

Oats 

Potatoes 

Tobacco 

Barley 

Sweet potatoes . 

Rye 

Beans (d) 

Rice 

Flax 



Area 



Area 

108,101,000 

31,689,000 

52,490,000 

34,790,000 

40,587,000 

3,802,000 

1,334,000 

7,761,000 

737,000 

3,108,000 

1,185,000 

831,000 

1.721,000 



Yield 



Bushels 

2,768,201,000 

(a) 78,165,000 
793,469,000 

(b) 12,776,000 
1,330,196,000 

366,131,000 

(c) 1,080,076,000 

198,655,000 
69,873,000 
49,443,000 
12,080,000 
31,096,000 
13.680.000 



Farm value 



Dollars 

2,294,249,000 

974,442,000 

951,698,000 

936,611,000 

643,178,000 

322,511,000 

157,457,000 

143,598,000 

57,484,000 

53,604,000 

52,524,000 

35,036,000 

24,763,000 



(a) tons; (b) bales; (c) pounds; (d) average for four years, 1914-17. 

Another basis on which the importance of the corn crop 
in the various states may be judged is by the proportion of 
the improved farm acreage which is annually planted to it. 
Figure 16 shows graphically the percentage of this acreage 
which was planted to corn during the ten years from 
1908 to 1917 in the five states of largest production. Corn 
occupied 21.09 per cent of the improved farm land in the 
United States, as compared with 10.35 per cent in wheat and 
8.02 per cent in oats. In Illinois and Iowa corn is planted 
on more than one third of the improved farm land, while 
in several other states it is grown on more than one fourth of 
the improved acreage. These figures are based on the aver- 
age annual acreage of the various crops in the ten years from 
1908 to 1917, as reported by the Bureau of Crop Estimates, 



54 FIELD CROPS 

and on the acreage of improved farm land reported by the 
Census of 1910, latest authentic figures available. 

61. Acre Yield. The average yield of corn to the acre, 
even in the best corn states, is seen to be very low in com- 
parison with known yields in any community. The states 
showing the highest average yield are those with compara- 
tively small acreages. The five states showing highest yields 
are Connecticut, with an average yield of 46.2 bushels; 
Massachusetts, 43.5 bushels; New Hampshire, 42.7 bushels; 
Maine, 41.6 bushels; and Pennsylvania, 39.8 bushels to the 

MO.. mm ^^mma^t^mim^Kmmamm^^^^^mm 38% 
ILLINOIS m^ammima^ ^mmmi^^^a^^mmm^^^^ m 36.70% 

IOWA i^«^ ^^— ^■^■i^M^—— — i^^ " 33.56% 

NEB. ■^^■^^■■■^^^^■■^^■^^1^ 31.09% 

INDIANA mmamm^^H^^mm^mmm^^mi^ 29.36% 

Figure 16. — The proportion of the improved farm acreage in the leading 
states which is annually planted to corn (1908-1917). 

acre. The surprising fact shown by a study of yields is that 
in the northern states, where small varieties are grown, the 
yield is considerably more per acre than in the Southern 
states, where the largest varieties thrive. The South, how- 
ever, owing to the longer season and more abundant rainfall, 
has greater possibilities in corn production than can be found 
in the North, and yields there of over 200 bushels per acre 
have been obtained on specially prepared and fertilized land. 
The possibilities for increased yields are great in any part 
of the United States, and even in the northernmost states 
yields of 100 bushels and over are sometimes produced. 

62. Units of Measure for Farm Crops. Over a very 
large part of the United States the unit of measure for the 
cereal crops is the bushel of 2,150.42 cubic inches capacity, 
but as these crops vary in weight per bushel and as their 
values are more accurately measured by weight than by 
bulk, a more accurate comparison of production and value 
may be made by use of the unit of measure now common in 
the western states, the pound or hundred pounds. It would 



SOILS AND FERTILIZERS 55 

be a desirable change for all concerned if it could be agreed 
to discard the bushel as a unit of measure and substitute 
the actual weight of the crop. 

To show the value of this change, only a few illustrations 
of its convenience are needed. As most of our cereals are 
used at times for feed, the question often arises, which is 
it more economical to feed and which to sell? If oats are 
selling at 60 cents per bushel of 32 pounds, and corn at 98 
cents per bushel of 56 pounds, it is a somewhat complicated 
problem to determine just what is the relative price of the 
two crops. If the same problem were to arise and the rela- 
tive prices were the same, with 100 pounds as the unit of 
measure instead of the bushel, it would be stated as follows: 
Oats, $1,873/2 per cwt.; corn, $1.75 per cwt. The comparison 
is instantly and accurately made without computation. An- 
other problem that often arises on the farm is to determine 
the advisability of increasing or decreasing the relative acre- 
ages of some of the cereal crops. A comparison by bushels 
is certainly unfair, if feed is the object of the crop. If one 
knows that barley has been yielding about 25 bushels, oats 
35 bushels, and corn 30 bushels to the acre, one is likely to 
have a different idea of the relative importance of the crops 
than one would if the yields were stated in pounds to the 
acre as follows: Barley, 1,200 pounds; oats, 1,120 pounds; 
and corn, 1,680 pounds. 

SOILS AND FERTILIZERS 

63. Soils. Corn grows best in warm, rich, moist, w^ell- 
drained sandy loam soils. It should not be inferred, how- 
ever, that this crop will not thrive on any other kind of soil, 
because it will grow and is grown on soils of almost every 
type. It will grow on very light, poor land, but it makes 
really good growth only on deep, rich soil. It is a strong 
feeder, and can make use of coarse manure and soddy land 
better than most other field crops. 



56 FIELD CROPS 

To be reasonably sure of success, corn land must be suffi- 
ciently well drained to allow a free circulation of air in the 
soil to a depth of from 2 to 3 feet, must have enough plant 
food available for the production of ordinary field crops, 
and must be situated where there is a sufficient period of time 
free from frost to allow the crop to mature. A higher aver- 
age temperature must prevail than is necessary for some of 
the small grain and grass crops. The soil must be compact 
enough to retain moisture, yet should be fine and mellow 
enough so that the roots may easily penetrate it. 

The corn plant in its growth uses large amounts of mois- 
ture. Corn can hardly be termed a dry-land crop, as it must 
have a reasonable supply of moisture to succeed, but it can 
be carried over periods of drought of considerable length by 
persistent cultivation to check evaporation. The soil, how- 
ever, must have contained a good supply of moisture before 
the beginning of the drought. The only reason corn can stand 
dry weather better than the small grain crops is because cul- 
tivation is possible during its growth, lessening the evapora- 
tion from the soil. 

64. The Application of Manure. As corn is a gross- 
feeding plant and is able to make good use of such sources 
of plant food as manure, it is the general practice to apply 
barnyard manure to the corn crop, usually before the land is 
plowed. As the greater part of the available manure is pro- 
duced during the winter, plowing is generally deferred until 
spring, so that all the manure may be put on the land. Plow- 
ing under coarse stable manure, whether on sod or stubble 
land, is objectionable from the standpoint of moisture con- 
trol and probably also in the matter of getting the best use 
of the manure. The coarse manure lying between the sub- 
soil and the furrow slice quite effectively separates these two 
portions of the soil and retards the movement of moisture 
between them. Much better results can be obtained if the 
land thus manured is thoroughly disked and the manure 



MANURE AS FERTILIZER 57 

incorporated in the top soil before plowing. Doing so aids 
in settling the furrow slice firmly against the subsoil. 

65. Applying Manure to Grass Land. A better practice 
than the one just mentioned is to apply manure to the grass 
land a year or more before the land is to be plowed for corn. 
Manure applied to pasture land greatly stimulates the growth 
of grass. By trampling and by natural decomposition, it 
becomes somewhat mixed with the surface soil and incor- 
porated with it; then, when the land is plowed, it does not 
act as a coarse mulch to separate the plowed portion from the 
subsoil. This method of applying manure has the additional 
advantage of disposing of most of the weed seeds which are 
commonly present in it. Weed seeds in manure thus applied 
are induced to germinate, but the plants are unable to make 
much growth and have little opportunity to produce seeds in 
either meadow or pasture. 

66. Applying Manure as a Top-Dressing. Another very 
good practice that is being followed more and more by corn 
growers is to apply the manure to corn land as a top-dressing. 
This practice makes it possible to plow the land in the fall. 
Manure accumulated about the yards and produced in the 
stables during the winter is spread on top of the fall plowing 
and is disked into the soil in the spring before the corn is 
planted. In this way the coarse manure which is applied 
does not in any way tend to separate the surface soil from the 
subsoil. It helps to form a surface mulch to retard the 
evaporation of moisture from the soil, and it is near the sur- 
face where many of the weed seeds in it may be germinated 
and the plants easily killed by subsequent cultivation. It is 
above the roots of the plants, so that leaching from the 
manure carries the fertility down to the plant roots, instead 
of carrying it below and out of their reach as may be the 
case if manure is plowed under. 

From ten to fifteen loads of manure to the acre, which is 
as much as it is generally advisable to apply at one time, may 



58 



FIELD CROPS 



be disked into the surface of fall-plowed land so thoroughly 
as to give little or no trouble in the planting and cultivation 
of a corn crop. 

67. Use of Green Manure Crops. In the South and East, 
where less stable manure is available than in the corn belt, 




Figure 17. — Hills of coin six weeks from planting. Note how the surface 18 
inches of soil is filled with roots. The soil must be well prepared for this 
rapid growth of roots. 

while the need of adding fertility and vegetable matter to 
the soil is greater, the use of green manure crops before plant- 
ing corn is generally beneficial. Where corn is planted on 
sod land, plenty of vegetable matter is available, but such 
land is not common in the South. In that section, the vege- 
table matter can best be supplied by the use of cowpeas, 
soy beans, velvet beans, crimson clover, bur clover, or some 
crop of similar nature. The green manure crop should be 
plowed under some time previous to planting corn, so that 
the land has time to settle and the vegetable matter to decay 
to some extent, but it is usually better to plow in the early 



COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 59 

spring than in the fall. Leaching and washing, which are 
very likely to take place on fall-plowed land, are prevented 
by a cover crop which is not plowed under till spring. 

68. Commercial Fertilizers. While a leguminous green- 
manure crop such as those suggested in the previous para- 
graph will supply nitrogen it is usually necessary throughout 
the East and South to suppty some phosphorus and potash 
to meet the demands of the corn crop. Quite frequently, a 
complete fertilizer which contains all three of the elements 
just mentioned is used. The fertilizer is quite commonly 
distributed along the row in two applications, the first when 
the corn is about 2 feet high and the second just before it 
tassels, though sometimes it is all applied either broadcast 
before or in the row at the time of planting. The fertilizing 
materials generally used are cottonseed meal, muriate of 
potash, and acid phosphate. The quantity which is applied 
and the proportions of the three constituents vary greatly 
with the soil on which the crop is grown\ The usual quan- 
tity of the mixture ranges from 300 to 500 pounds, about two 
thirds of which is put on at the first application. A good 
corn fertilizer should contain about 8 per cent of phosphoric 
acid, 5 to 6 per cent of nitrogen, and 5 to 9 per cent of potash. 
It is not usually profitable to use commercial fertilizers in 
the corn belt where there is plenty of vegetable matter in 
the soil, though on some soils which are decidedly deficient 
in some one element, marked benefit is obtained from it. 

PREPARATION OF THE SOIL 

69. Preparation of Fall-Plowed Sod Land. The ability of 
corn to use plant food in a crude form makes it possible to 
plant it on newly broken sod land. It frequently follows 
clover or some other hay crop, or is planted on a field that 
has been in pasture. Such crops leave the land some- 

lAt the present time (1918) the prices of certain fertilizers are so high that 
their use is practically prohibitive. The general Bse of green manures and the 
more careful and economic use of barnyard manure is imperative. 



60 FIELD CROPS 

what soddy, so that considerable preparation is required to 
make a good, hospitable seed bed for corn. 

Sod land is best prepared for corn if it can be plowed in 
the fall, so that there is some opportunity for it to decompose 
before the crop is planted. There is also time for the part 
turned by the plow to settle sufficiently to estabhsh connec- 
tion with the subsoil, so that in case of a shortage of moisture 
the supply in the lower layers of soil may be drawn up to 
the plants growing in the furrow slice. The freezing and 
thawing of the winter season tends to break down the 
unusual porous structure to its natural condition. 
. Land plowed in the fall should be disked or harrowed 
early in the spring to check the evaporation of moisture 
from the surface. Harrowing aids in warming the soil by 
checking the evaporation. It also causes many weed seeds 
to germinate. The young plants can then be killed by later 
harro wings before the crop is planted. Much of the advan- 
tage in plowing corn land in the fall may be lost by neglect- 
ing to harrow early in the spring. If the land is left rough 
and has settled clear to the surface, as is usually the case 
in the spring with fall-plowed land, evaporation goes on 
very rapidly; and, as corn is not usually planted for several 
weeks after the ground thaws in the spring, there is oppor- 
tunity for the loss of much moisture. It is desirable to disk or 
harrow this land at least once every week till planting time. 
In preparing a seed bed for corn the object should be to have 
the lower part of the furrow slice thoroughly pulverized but 
compact enough to permit the free movement of water by 
capillarity, while the upper part should be loose enough to 
retard the evaporation of moisture somewhat by preventing 
its easy rise to the surface, where it will be quickly drawn out 
by the sun and wind. 

An additional advantage of fall plowing, especially in the 
case of sod land, is that many insects are destroyed which 
might otherwise cause considerable injury to the crop. 



PLOWING SOD LAND 



61 



70. Preparation of Spring-Plowed Sod Land. A large 
part of the land that is planted to corn must, for various 
reasons, be plowed in the spring. To get the best results 
from spring plowing, the conditions obtained by fall plowing 
must be dupli- 
cated as nearly 
as possible. One 
of the chief diffi- 
culties with 
spring plowing is 
that the soil does 
not have a 
chance to settle; 
it is, therefore, 
likely to be so 
loose that it 
dries out readily, 
while at the same 
time the move- 
ment of moisture 
from the subsoil 
up through the 
furrow slice is 
somewhat re- 
tarded. One of 
the most com- 
mon ways of 

putting spring-plowed land in the desired condition is to 
harrow and disk it several times after plowing to aid in 
packing it. The surface of spring-plowed land is easily 
pulverized, especially if it is harrowed soon after it is plowed. 
For this reason, a spring-plowed field may appear, from the 
surface, to be in excellent condition, when in reahty it is in 
very poor condition, as the surface may be thoroughly pul- 
verized and the lower part of the furrow slice still improperly 




Figure 18. — Hills of corn eleven weeks from planting. 
The roots have now penetrated to a depth of 2H feet. 
Compare with Figures 17 and 19. 



62 



FIELD CROPS 



^\.- 






a-Ji 



Mm 






pulverized and packed against the subsoil. The earher the 

plowing is done the more readily the wet sod will be broken 

/- . ^.-. up. Considerable disk- 



ing and harrowing is 
necessary to prepare a 
spring-plowed field for 
corn. A practice that 
is followed by many 
careful farmers is to 
disk the land thorough- 
ly before plowing. The 
pulverized surface, 
when turned over, is 
more readily compacted 
against the subsoil than 
land which is not pul- 
verized. This contact is 
especially necessary in 
sod land, for the stubble 
and other vegetable 
matter on the surface of 
meadow or pasture land 
are liable to separate the 
furrow slice quite effec- 
tively from the subsoil, 
thus greatly retarding 
the movement of mois- 
ture. 

Cultivation can be 
done more cheaply and 




Figure 19. — Hills of corn at maturity. Note 
that the roots have now penetrated to a 
depth of 4 feet. See Figures 17 and 18. 



more completely before the corn is planted than afterwards, 
because more horses and larger machines can be used and all 
the soil can be cultivated to better advantage. 

71. Preparation of Stubble Land. The methods out- 
lined for the preparation of sod land for corn will produce 



PREPARATION OF SEED CORN 63 

equally good results when applied to ordinary stubble fields. 

The only difference is that such lands are usually more easily 
prepared than sod lands. 

PREPARATION OF SEED CORN FOR PLANTING 

72. Good seed is equally as important as a well-pre- 
pared seed bed. Good seed corn is seed from a variety 



Jr\. :^_— _-^ 




Figure 20. — Grading seed corn makes it possible for the planter to drop the 
seed uniformly. A, the ungraded sample; B, the large, uniform kernels for 
planting; C, the small and irregular kernels graded out. 

adapted to one's needs and conditions, of strong germina- 
tion, and sufficiently uniform to insure even planting. For 
the selection of seed corn see Sections 121-132. 

73. Grading. The first step necessary in the spring to 
obtain good seed is to select ears of corn from the supply at 
hand that are as uniform in type and ear and kernel as it 
is possible to get. Corn is generally planted with machines. 
These machines can plant uniformly only when kernels of 
uniform size are used. Two ears of corn may be good indi- 



64 



FIELD CROPS 




Figure 21. — Tip, middle, and butt kernels. 
Tip and butt kernels should be shelled off 
from the seed ears and discarded, as they 
are irregular in shape and will not drop 
uniformly. 



vidual ears, but if the type of kernel is different when they 
are shelled together they will make an uneven sample of 
corn which cannot be planted uniformly. Likewise, kernels 
of corn from the tip and butt of the ear, if shelled with the 
more uniform kernels in the middle, make an uneven mix- 
ture which no machine planter can plant uniformly. If 
a corn grader is at hand through which corn may be run and 
the small, large, and irregular kernels removed from those 

which are of a uniform 
type, it is not so impor- 
tant that uniform ears be 
selected, or that the tip 
and butt kernels be re- 
moved. If such a ma- 
chine is not at hand, as 
is the case on the major- 
ity of farms, it is highly 
important that uniform 
ears be chosen and that the tip and butt kernels be removed 
from these ears before the bulk of the corn is shelled for seed. 
If this is. done, a reasonably uniform sample may be obtained. 

74. Germination. Experiments conducted by a number 
of experiment stations indicate conclusively that there is a 
very close relation between the stand of corn and the yield. 
This being true, it is of great importance that only such seed 
as is known to be of strong germination be planted. If 100 
kernels from a uniform sample of corn are taken and each 
of the 100 kernels grow, producing a strong, vigorous shoot 
and strong roots, it is reasonable to suppose that the sample 
is good; but if only 90 out of the 100 kernels grow, the sample 
is of questionable value, because, if such seed is planted, it 
means that one acre out of every ten planted will not pro- 
duce anything. 

75. The Individual Ear Test. Instead of making the 
test from a bulk sample of corn, as suggested above, the best 



THE RAG-DOLL TESTER 65 

growers now recommend and practice the testing of each 
ear of corn as to its germinating power, before it is shelled, 
and, if it does not germinate strongly, it is discarded. There 
are numerous ways of maldng this test, which are all good. 
To make the test, some method of numbering each indi- 
vidual ear must be used. There are several different ways 
of numbering the ears, among which are the following: 
(1) The ears may be placed on a seed-corn tree (Figure 42) 
and a number placed on the tree near each one of the nails. 
X2) If the corn is hung up by the double-string method (Fig- 
ure 43), the ears may be numbered without taking them out 
of the strings by numbering one string 1, the next string 11, 
the next 21, and so on, assuming that there are ten ears in 
each string and that the ears in the string are counted from 
1 to 10. If there are 13 ears in each string, for example, 
the second string is marked 14, the third 27, and so on. (3) 
Another method of numbering is to lay the ears side by side 
on a plank and drive a tenpenny nail between each two ears. 
In this way each ear of corn will be separated from the next 
by a nail, and the number may be written just beneath each 
ear with a piece of lead or pencil. 

76. The Rag-Doll Tester. Probably the simplest method 
of testing seed corn is with what is known as the rag-doll 
tester. To make this tester, take a strip of bleached muslin 
about 16 inches wide and from 3 to 5 feet long. Begin 6 
inches from one end and mark it off in 4-inch spaces; then 
draw a line lengthwise through the center of the strip, divid- 
ing each of these spaces in two. Now number the first two 
4-inch spaces 1 and 2, the next two 3 and 4, and so on to the 
end. Moisten the muslin and lay it flat on the table. 

77. Making the Test. Take 6 kernels from ear 1 and 
place them in space 1 with all the tips pointing to one side; 
then take 6 kernels from ear 2 and place them in space 2, 
and so on. As long a strip of muslin may be used as can be 
conveniently rolled. The spaces may be made slightly 

5 — 



66 



FIELD CROPS 



3// 



/■ o 



a5 



smaller if desired. Press the moist 
muslin down on the kernels. Next 
begin at one end to roll the strip, either 
making a roll of the cloth alone or 
rolling it over a cob or small, round 
stick (Figure 23). Tie the completed 
roll in the middle with a string or fasten 
it with a rubber band. Soak it in luke- 
warm water three or four hours, then 
let it drain, and place it where it will 
remain moist and warm. Ordinary 
room temperature of about 70 degrees 
is all right, though germination will be 
more rapid if it is kept at about 80 
degrees during the 
day. If, however, 
one wishes to make 
a very selective 
test, it would be 
well to keep the 
temperature down 
to that of probable 
field conditions at 
the time of plant- 
ing. More marked 
differences will then 
be apparent in the 
sprouts. Thehigher 
the temperature the 
more likely even the 

poorer kernels are to develop fair sprouts. 

Keep the roll moist by covering with wet 

cloth or by moistening occasionally, as 

may be found necessary, but do not soak Figure 23. — Rag-doU 

it again. At the end of 5 days unroll the Sotnd'S c'oracob"''^ 






3 



> ! 



/ 



Figure 22. — Rag-doll seed 
corn tester showing seed 
placed in separate sec- 
tions. 




PLANTING CORN 



67 




doll carefully so as not to mix the kernels from the different 
ears, count the kernels which have germinated strongly in 
each space, make a record of the results for each ear, and dis- 
card all ears which do not show at least 5 strong sprouts from 
the 6 kernels. If seed 
corn is plentiful and of 
good quality, save only 
the ears which show 
strong sprouts from all 
kernels. When a person 
has a variety of corn 
known to be adapted to 
his conditions, has select- 
ed and graded it till the 
kernels are uniform, and 
has tested the germina- 
tion and discarded all 
that did not germinate 
approximately 100 per 
cent, he has good seed. 

PLANTING CORN 

78. Important Factors in Planting. There are four points 
of importance to consider relative to planting corn. The 
first of these is the time of planting; second, depth of 
planting; third, method of planting; and fourth, thickness 
of planting. 

79. Time of Planting. The time of planting corn varies 
with the season and the location. Corn is a semi tropical 
plant which will not stand frost; on this account, it must not 
be planted until the season is quite well advanced or until 
danger of frost is past. Corn planted in cold, wet ground 
does not do well, and seed that would normally germinate 
and grow strongly may be entirely lost if planted when con- 
ditions are not suitable. Generally, it is safe to delay plant- 
ing until there is every indication of favorable conditions of 



Figure 24. — Germination of corn kernels. 
The one at the left hag the tip shoot only: 
the one in the center, the root; only the one 
at the right, with both root and tip strong- 
ly developed, will produce a strong plant. 



68 



FIELD CROPS 



soil and weather. Corn planted May 20 may easily out- 
strip in growth and yield that planted under less favorable 
conditions ten days earlier. 

It is quite obvious that no definite date for planting can 
be set, even for one locality, and much less for the United 
States. It is usually well to plant as early as soil and weather 




Figure 25. — Average dates of beginning corn planting throughout the United 
States (Bureau of Statistics, Bui. 84). 

conditions will warrant. The date will naturally vary in 
different parts of the United States, from March in the 
South to June in the extreme North. The accompanying 
map. Figure 25, shows the average date when corn planting 
is begun in the various sections, as compiled from a large 
mass of information on this subject collected by the Bureau 
of Crop Estimates of the Department of Agriculture. 



METHOD OF PLANTING 



69 




80. Depth of Planting. As corn thrives best in a warm, 
moist soil, it is obvious that rather shallow planting will be 
most likely to furnish the best conditions at the season of the 
year that corn is usually planted. The depth must neces- 
sarily be varied with the condition of the soil. The seed 
must be planted deep enough so that it can get sufficient 
moisture to germinate, 

but it is not necessary or 
desirable to plant it deep- 
-er . On Hght or very loose 
soils, it should be planted- 
deeper than on heavy 
soils. On soil that has 
been well prepared, it 
should not be necessary 
to plant deeper than 2 
inches to get sufficient 
moisture, and 1 inch is to 
be preferred, if there is 
enough moisture present. 

In some of the drier sections of the corn belt, listing is 
practiced. Listing is planting corn in the bottom of a fur- 
row from 3 to 5 inches deep and covering it with only 1 or 2 
inches of soil. As the corn grows and the field is cultivated, 
the soil is gradually thrown in about the plants. This 
method is not advisable except in very dry locations, for 
experiments have shown that even in regions of light rainfall 
corn planted in the usual way has given larger yields than 
listed corn, except in the very driest seasons. 

81. Method of Planting. There are two common meth-. 
ods of planting corn for the production of grain. The first is 
in checked rows, with hills 42 or 44 inches apart each way. 
The second is in drills 42 or 44 inches apart, with the kernels 
ofc orn dropped in the drills from 9 to 18 inches apart. Some 
good corn growers follow one method, some the other. Those 



Figure 26. — Planting corn with the check-row 
planter. Long, straight rows make the 
work of cultivation easy. 



70 FIELD CROPS 

who advocate drilling corn claim that less cultivation is 
required, and, because the corn is better distributed, larger 
yields are obtained. The facts do not seem to bear out this 
contention, though on specially clean soil and in years when 
the rainfall is normal or more than normal, shghtly larger 
yields have been obtained from drilling. In a large number 
of tests conducted by several experiment stations, however, 
there has not been sufficient difference in yield to warrant 
advocating one method above the other. 

One of the objects in growing corn is to clean the land of 
weeds. This certainly can be more thoroughly accomplished 
if the corn is planted in checked rows and cultivated both 
ways than if planted in drills; on this account, it is deemed 
advisable, on most soils, to plant in this manner. It is 
also easier to husk hill corn than drill corn; but, if it is to be 
fed out of the bundle, the advantage of the larger number of 
small ears is in favor of drilling. On rich soils, such as clover 
sod, that are comparatively free from weeds, drilhng corn 
may give very good satisfaction, especially if the land is 
thoroughly prepared before the corn is planted. On hilly or 
broken land it is also often advisable to plant in drills to 
prevent washing of the soil and to avoid the difficulty of short 
turns in cultivation. It is generally better, however, to 
plant corn so that it may be cultivated both ways. 

82. Thickness of Planting. The general practice in 
planting corn is to plant in hills 44 inches apart, with three 
kernels to the hill; or, if planted in drills, to use about the 
same quantity of seed. It has been shown by numerous 
tests throughout the corn belt that a stand of three stalks to 
the hill, as a rule, gives about as large yields as can be 
expected. Where tests have been made with two, three, 
and four stalks to the hill, the yields have been slightly 
larger with four stalks than with three, and much larger 
with four or three than with only two. From these expe- 
riments, it is quite safe to plan on at least three stalks to the 



TYPES OF PLANTERS 71 

hill, while four stalks are preferable to three. A six-year ex- 
periment in Nebraska showed that with one plant in a hill, 
there were 161 ears on 100 plants and a yield of 48.3 bushels 
per acre, while the maximum yield per acre, 76.7 bushels, 
was obtained when there were four plants in a hill and when 
the number of ears per 100 plants was only 82. If the qual- 
ity of seed is in doubt, four kernels should be planted in 
each hill instead of two or three. From 4 to 7 quarts of 
seed are required to plant an acre. In dry sections and on 
'poor land thin planting is desirable. 

A large number of tests to determine the distance apart 
to plant corn have shown that slightly larger yields are 
obtained by putting the rows more closely together than is 
the common practice. A test made by the Illinois Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station for two years shows a yield 
of 58.3 bushels to the acre when corn was planted 39^/^ inches 
apart each way with three kernels to the hill, as compared 
with 53.9 bushels from hills 44 inches apart each way, three 
kernels to the hill. The increased yield from the closer 
planting in this case was a little more than sufficient to cover 
the increased cost of growing corn in hills 393/^ inches apart 
each way over that in 44-inch hills. With some smaller 
varieties grown in the North, better results can be obtained 
by planting from 36 to 40 inches apart each way than plant- 
ing 44 inches each way. In the corn belt, however, it is 
evident that the practice of planting corn in checked rows 
44 inches apart, with three to four kernels to the hill, can 
hardly be improved. On poor land in the South it is not 
uncommon to plant corn in rows as wide as 5 feet apart. 

83. Types of Planters. Corn is often planted in small 
patches by hand, using a hoe to open the hills and to cover 
the kernels after they have been dropped. This method of 
planting is very slow. Hand planters are sometimes used 
but they are very inferior to the two-row horse planter which 
is the implement always used where any considerable acreage 



72 FIELD CROPS 

of corn is grown. From 12 to 18 acres may be planted in a 
day by one man and two horses with a two-row planter. 
Most of these planters may be used for either checking or 
drilling corn. There are two types of horse planters. In 
the round-hole type, the desired number of kernels to the 
hill is regulated by the size of the holes in the disks or planter 
plates used; in the other, the edge-drop planter, the number 
of kernels to the hill is regulated by the number of places in 
the edge of the disk, each of which will permit one kernel to 
enter edgewise. The edge-drop planter is more accurate 
than the round-hole planter if the seed corn used is all graded 
to a uniform size, but with irregular kernels of corn the round- 
hole type is to be preferred. 

CULTIVATION 

84. Objects of Cultivation. The objects of cultivating 
corn are to conserve moisture, to liberate plant food, and to 
destroy weeds. As previously stated, (Section 70) , it is cheaper 
to do as much of the cultivation as possible before the crop 
is planted. The labor of keeping a field in good condition 
during the growth of the crop is thus greatly reduced. 

85. Harrowing. There is considerable difference of 
opinion as to the advisability of harrowing corn land after 
the crop is planted. During the first day or two after 
planting, it may be harrowed without danger of injury, but 
as soon as the kernels begin to germinate there is danger 
that the harrow teeth will destroy some of them or the plants. 

It seems somewhat inconsistent to spend considerable 
effort in grading and testing seed corn to insure a perfect 
stand and then take the risk with the harrow to destroy 
from 5 to 10 per cent of the plants at one operation. One 
can hardly set any hard and fast rules for the care of corn, 
because so much depends on the soil and especially on the 
weather conditions; but, if planting is deferred until condi- 
tions are favorable and the seed is planted only on soil that 



BLIND CULTIVATION 73 

is in thoroughly good condition, harrowing normally will be 
unnecessary. If cold, rainy weather comes on after the corn 
is planted, however, preventing its prompt germination and 
growth, it is probably better to harrow the field and keep 
the soil in good condition than to allow it to become baked 
and hard and to permit weeds to grow, even if some plants 
are destroyed by this treatment. 

86. Blind Cultivation. In many instances, blind culti- 
vation, — that is, cultivating the corn before it is up by 
following the rows, as indicated by the planter marks, — 
is a desirable practice. By cultivating as soon as it is evident 
that the soil should be stirred, even throwing a httle soil on 
top of the row, its condition may be greatly improved and 
many small weeds may be destroyed without injuring the 
small corn plants. Thus harrowing can often be obviated. 

87. Use of the Weeder. The weeder is often used during 
the early stages of cultivation with good results. The weeder 
is such a light implement that unless the soil is in fairly good 
condition it cannot do much work; but if the soil has been 
harrowed, or preferably, blind-cultivated, going over it with 
a weeder will destroy many small weeds and leave the soil 
soft and mellow on top of the hills, so that the plants can 
easily push their way out. 

88. Types of Cultivators. The selection of tools for the 
cultivation of corn may be influenced to a considerable degree 
by personal preference. A few simple principles are worthy 
of consideration in the selection of these implements, however. 
A cultivator is used to loosen the soil, sometimes when it is 
rather heavy and hard, and also to tear out rather large weeds 
which should not be in a corn field, but which, nevertheless, 
are often found there. It is evident, then, that a cultivator, 
to be useful for these purposes, must have strength cap- 
able of stirring considerable soil to a reasonable depth. 

The types of sulky cultivators in more or less common 
use include those with two shovels on each side, the shovels 



74 FIELD CROPS 

necessarily being large to cover tne ground ; those with three 
shovels on each side, the individual shovels somewhat 
smaller but still comparatively large; and those with four 
or more rather small shovels on each side. There are also 
the so-called surface cultivators with flat blades instead of 
shovels, and disk cultivators. Their blades are set diag- 
onally and run just under the surface of the ground. 

89. Uses of Different Types. It is evident that some of 
these types of cultivators are better adapted to some con- 
ditions than to others, and that all have their place. It 
is also evident that the number of shovels, the size of shovels, 
their arrangement, and the way they pass through the soil 
have much to do with the clogging of the gangs by weeds 
or other refuse that may be in the soil. Clogging and inabil- 
ity to tear up heavy, weedy soil are some of the objections 
to cultivators having several small shovels on each side. 
Those having two or three rather large shovels are objection- 
able chiefly because, in order to stir thoroughly all the ground 
over which they pass, it is often necessary to run the shovels 
deeper than is desirable, with the result that the corn roots 
are injured. Surface cultivators are ideal so far as avoiding 
root injury and keeping weeds cut off below the surface are 
concerned, but are not as efficient as the shovel types in 
loosening the soil, in working very weedy land, or where there 
is much coarse manure. On this account, it appears that 
for general work on the farm a cultivator with three or four 
moderate-sized shovels on each side, set diagonally so they 
are not likely to be clogged with weeds or refuse, is the more 
desirable type of implement for general use. If a combi- 
nation machine can be had, on which blades for surface 
cultivation and sets of shovels can be used as desired, a still 
better implement is available. 

90. Two-Row Cultivators. In recent years, many of 
the larger corn growers have used the two-row cultivators. 
These are certainly economical, as where the soil is well 
prepared and the planting well done, a man can handle such 



DEPTH OF CULTIVATION 75 

a machine practically as well as he can a one-row cultivator, 
thus considerably reducing the cost of cultivation. 

91. One-Horse Cultivators. To complete any equipment 
for corn cultivation, a fine-tooth, one-horse cultivator should 
be available for use after the plants are too high to culti- 
vate with the ordinary tools. The surface mulch made by 




Figure 27. — The two-row cultivator, an economical implement for use in large 
fields that have been well prepared. 

the early cultivation given is often entirely eliminated by 
a heavy rain; then, in order to save the moisture needed for 
the later development of the crop, the surface of the soil 
must be stirred. This cultivation can best be done with a fine- 
tooth, one-horse cultivator that stirs the surface thoroughly 
and yet not so deep as to injure the roots. 

92. Depth of Cultivation. It is impossible to state any 
arbitrary depth at which it is desirable to cultivate corn. 
The object of the cultivation should be to leave the soil in a 
loose, mellow condition on the surface and to destroy any 
weeds that may be growing, with as little injury as possible 
to the corn roots. Anyone may convince himself, by careful 
observation, that the roots of corn quite thoroughly occupy 



76 FIELD CROPS 

the entire soil area between the rows by the time the plants 
are 12 to 15 inches high (Figure 17). As the roots are the 
chief means the plant has of obtaining plant food and mois- 
ture, it is plain that to injure any of these roots lessens the 
feeding area and the food supply of the corn plant. 

Corn roots or, in fact, the roots of any plants, are sure to 
grow in the portion of the soil that furnishes the best con- 
ditions for their growth. In wet years, when the soil is 
saturated with moisture, there is likely to be a scarcity of 
air in the soil; hence the roots of plants will grow quite near 
the surface. In dry years, when there is a scarcity of mois- 
ture, especially in the surface, the roots will grow deeper 
in search of moisture. It is thus evident that it is safe 
to cultivate more deeply in dry years than in wet ones. The 
depth to which the field has been plowed also influences the 
depth at which roots will grow most abundantly. 

The depth of cultivation should always be regulated by 
the depth at which the corn roots grow and by the necessity 
for deep cultivation, such as weeds or a heavy, wet condition 
of the soil. If deep cultivation must be practiced, it is 
safer to cultivate deep while the corn plants are small. They 
then have smaller root systems and are injured less by hav- 
ing some of the roots broken off. The practice followed by 
the best corn growers at present is to cultivate deep at the 
first cultivation, if deep cultivation is necessary at all, and 
then to cultivate as shallow as is consistent with keeping the 
soil in good condition and free from weeds. 

93. Frequency of Cultivation. If care is exercised not to 
disturb the roots of the corn plant, cultivating often enough 
to keep down weeds and to maintain a good surface mulch 
to retain moisture is desirable. The soil can usually be 
kept in good condition by cultivating three or four times, 
but sometimes six or even eight times is more profitable. 

The impression used to be quite general that it was not 
advisable to cultivate corn after it had tasseled. There 



HARVESTING CORN 



77 



were two principal reasons for this belief: First, sulky culti- 
vators cannot well be used at that time; second, corn growers, 
not reaUzing the loss that might come from cutting off corn 
roots, found that cultivating the corn after it had reached 
that state usually resulted in injury rather than benefit to 
the crop. It has now been quite definitely shown that this 




Figure 28. — Husking corn from the standing stalks, the usual method of 

harvesting. 

injury was due to the cutting off of roots and to no other 
reason. Many good corn growers now find it very profit- 
able to go through their corn fields quite late in the season 
with a one-horse, fine-tooth cultivator and stir the surface 
soil quite thoroughly, thus retarding evaporation and giv- 
ing the corn a larger supply of moisture at the time it is 
most needed; that is, when it is forming ears. If care is 
exercised not to cut off the roots, it is perfectly safe to cul- 
tivate corn at any time during the growing season. 

HARVESTING CORN 

94. Picking. A large percentage of the corn grown in the 
corn belt is harvested by picking the ears from the standing 



78 



FIELD CROPS 



stalks, leaving the stalks in the field to be pastured off by 
stock or to be cut up and plowed under. Corn is usually 
picked by hand. One man uses a team and wagon with high 
''throw board" on one side of the wagon box; the team is 
driven through the field astride one row, and the man picks 




Figure 29. — The corn picker, a machine for gathering the ears from standing 
corn. Not yet in general use. 



the two rows at the side of the wagon, the team stepping 
ahead slowly as the husking progresses. The high board 
on the opposite side of the wagon aids the husker in striking 
the box. From these wagons the corn is shoveled into 
cribs, where it is stored until used. In the South, the ears 
are simply snapped from the stalks, the husks being left on 
to protect the grain from insects. 

During the last few years, machine pickers have been 
invented and are now in use to some extent. These machines 
must be driven over each row of corn; a set of rolls pulls off 
the ears and takes off the husks; the husked ears are then 
elevated into a wagon which is driven beside the husker as it 



STORING CORN 79 

goes across the field. These machines, of course, cannot 
husk corn under all conditions as clean as it can be done by 
hand, but they reduce the man labor required and make it 
possible to get out large acreages in a short time. 

95. Storing Com. Corn cannot be stored in the same 
manner as other grains, on account of its liability to heat. It 
is practically impossible to store a large quantity of it together 
until it is at least a year old, without great danger of its heat- 
ing and spoiling. 

The most common method of storing corn is in the corn- 
crib, a narrow bin with slatted sides so that air can circulate 
freely through it. Two and one half cubic feet of space are 
required for a bushel of corn on the ear, which is the form in 
which it can most safely be stored. If 40 acres of corn are 
produced on a farm of 160 acres and storage room must be 
provided for 30 acres with a yield of 50 bushels to the acre, 
3,750 cubic feet of space are required. To furnish this space, 
four cribs 8 feet deep and 20 feet long, 5 feet wide at the bot- 
tom and 7 feet wide at the top, would be necessary. If 
possible, the corncrib should be raised on concrete pillars 
high enough so that mice and rats cannot readily get into it. 
The bottom should be tight, to save the corn that will natur- 
ally shell off as it is handled, but the sides are commonly made 
of 1 by 3 or 1 by 4 inch material nailed on to the studding 
with an inch open space between the cleats. Cribs wider 
than 6 feet should have some provision made for the circu- 
lation of air through the middle. This may be easily sup- 
plied by standing three or four posts erect, and placing 
woven wire around these so as to make a spout up through 
the center of the crib. The spout may be from 6 inches to 2 
feet across and should extend from a hole through the floor 
of the crib to allow free circulation of air. With these spouts 
placed every 6 or 8 feet through the center of the crib, it is 
safe to make the crib from 8 to 12 feet wide. Two or more 
cribs may be placed under one roof. A common practice is 



80 



FIELD CROPS 



to place two cribs 12 to 14 feet apart, cover them with one 
roof, and use the driveway between them for a wagonshed. 
96. Handling Bundle Com. Often corn is not husked, 
but is fed in the bundle. When it is handled in this way, it is 
cut with a corn binder (Figure 32) and shocked. It is then 
either hauled to the yards as it is fed or stacked in very 




Figure 30. — Shredding corn fodder and storing it in the barn where it will be 

convenient for feeding. 



narrow ricks. It is impractical to stack corn in large stacks, 
except in cold weather, as it is likely to heat. 

97. Shredded Com Stover. In some instances, corn that 
has been cut and shocked is run through machines called 
shredders, which husk the ears and tear the stalks into fine 
bits. Cornstalks are not made more palatable by running 
them through the shredder, but they are made much more 
convenient to handle and the corn is husked by machine 
power instead of by hand. The cost of shredding the corn 
is fully as great as husldng the shocked corn by hand. The 



C08T OF STOVER 81 

advantages of the process are that the work is quickly done 
and the stover is in better condition to handle, though it is 
often quite difficult to keep it, as it is very likely to heat or 
mold if it is not thoroughly dry when shredded. 

98. Cost of Saving Com Stover. It sometimes seems very 
wasteful to see large fields of corn in which the stalks have 
been left standing, and where little or no use is made of these . 
stalks. There is considerable value in corn stover, yet it is 
quite expensive to save it. Experiments conducted in Min- 
nesota show that it costs $11.66 an acre to grow corn where 
the corn is husked from the standing stalks, and $15.30 an 
acre where the corn is cut, shocked and shredded. Thus 
the shredded corn stover costs $3.64 per acre. A fair yield 
of corn stover is from IJ^ to 13^2 tons per acre. If the yield 
is 13^^ tons, the cost per ton would be $2.43. These figures 
were compiled several years ago; the cost of production of 
all crops is now (1918) much higher. As compared with 
clover hay at $8 a ton, corn stover has been shown to be worth 
but $3 a ton. To make cornstalks or corn stover pay for 
the cost of saving them, that cost should not be more than 
three eighths of the value of good clover hay. In a good 
many instances it is not economy to save the corn stover, 
but preferable to raise clover hay for feed. When forage 
is high in price, however, and clover hay is worth from $8 
to $12 per ton, it pays to save corn stover. 

99. Pasturing Stalk Fields. The practice is very general 
throughout the corn belt of allowing stock to run in the corn- 
fields after the corn has been husked, whenever weather 
conditions are favorable throughout the fall and winter. 
There are some reports of injury to stock by this practice, but 
it has not been definitely shown that the injury comes 
directly from the cornstalks, and the practice is still con- 
tinued even by the very best stockmen and corn growers. 

100. Hogging Off Com. Constantly increasing acreages 
of corn are being harvested by simply turning hogs into the 

6— 



82 



FIELD CROPS 



field as soon as the corn is ripe and allowing them to gather 
the crop. This practice may seem very slovenly and waste- 
ful, but careful experiments have demonstrated that pork 
may be produced economically in this way; that is, that an 

acre of corn will 
produce fully as 
much and usually 
a little more pork 
if the hogs are al- 
lowed to gather it 
themselves than if 
it is husked and 
fed to them in the 
yard. If hogs are 
not turned into 
too large fields, 
the waste is not 
great ; in fact, they 
will usually gather 
the corn as clean 
as a man. The 
better results 
which are some- 
times obtained 
from this method 
are due, perhaps, 
to the fact that 
hogs are better 
contented when 
allowed to run at 
will in the corn- 
field than when 
confined, and also because the corn does not become dry 
and hard and is, therefore, a little easier for the hogs to 
masticate than after it has been husked for some time. 




Figure 31. — Rape in corn, a good combination where 
the crop is to be "nogged off." 



FODDER CORN 83 

When com is to be hogged off, it is a very common prac- 
tice to sow rape, cowpeas, or some other crop between the 
corn rows just previous to the last cultivation of the crop and 
allow the hogs to pasture the green feed thus produced with 
the corn. These make a more balanced ration than the corn 
alone, and add to the total feed produced to the acre. 

FODDER CORN 

101. Definitions. Fodder corn is corn that is grown for 
'the purpose of feeding the whole plant — stalks, leaves, and 

ears — to hve stock. Such corn is usually planted more 
thickly than ordinary field corn, so that the stalks will be 
comparatively fine and the ears few and small. Bundle 
corn is corn that has been grown for ears, but cut, shocked 
and fed out of the bundle in the same manner as fodder corn 
is usually fed. Such corn usually has coarser stalks and a 
larger proportion of ears than fodder corn. Corn stover 
is the stalks of corn from which the ears have been husked 
and the stalks left to be fed out of the bundle or shredded. 

102. Value of Com Fodder. Corn is such a thrifty, 
quick-growing plant that there are few other common crops 
which can compete with it in the total production of feed to 
the acre. Owing to its quick, vigorous growth and its 
palatability, corn is very largely used as a forage crop. 
Corn fodder, properly grown, is more succulent than corn 
stover or hay. On this account it is more palatable than 
these common dry feeds, and is an excellent product to use 
as part of the roughage for live stock. It is worth $6 a ton 
for feeding when clover hay is worth $8.80 a ton. A fair 
yield is from 2}^ to 4 tons to the acre. Larger yields are 
sometimes obtained on very productive land. 

103. Importance. So far as its feeding value and yield 
are concerned, fodder corn is an excellent crop to grow, but 
on the general farm it does not have a very large place, owing 
to the fact that it is not a soil-building crop as are clover. 



84 



FIELD CROPS 



timothy, alfalfa, and the other grasses that are usually grown 
for forage. On most farms where as much of these grass 
crops is grown as is advisable in a good system of cropping 
and where a maximum quantity of corn for grain or silage 
is produced, there is usually enough roughage so that it is 




Figure 32. — The corn binder for cutting corn for fodder or silage. Much 
corn is also cut by hand or by some form of cutter which does not bind it 
into bundles. 



not necessary to grow fodder corn. It has, however, great 
value as a catch crop. In years when one has failed to get 
a catch of grass or when, owing to drought, the hay crop is 
short, it is often advisable to plant enough fodder corn to 
insure sufficient roughage to meet the requirements of the 
live stock kept on the farm. 

104. Production of Fodder Com. Fodder corn will 
grow on soil that wdll produce any of the common farm 
crops, though for its best growth a warm, rich, moist soil is 
desirable. It is often sown in low places that can not be 
seeded early in the season. The seed bed for fodder corn 



STACKING CORN 85 

should be prepared in the same manner as for corn that is 
grown for ears. Fodder corn is usually planted in single or 
double drills from 36 to 44 inches apart, at the rate of from 20 
to 50 pounds to the acre. It may be planted at almost any 
time in the season up to midsummer, but it is desirable to 
plant it early enough so that the plants can practically reach 
maturity before frost. 

As fodder corn is usually planted later in the season than 
field corn, it grows veiy rapidly and quickly shades the 
ground. It is, therefore, not generally necessary to give 
much cultivation. It is a very common practice to harrow 
the field after it is planted and then cultivate it two or three 
times until the corn shades the ground sufficiently to check 
the growth of weeds and retard the evaporation of moisture. 

105. Harvesting. Fodder corn is commonly harvested 
with a corn binder when the crop shows, either by the small 
ears that it may have produced or by the drying of the 
leaves, that it is practically mature. If the weather is 
exceedingly wet, it is sometimes necessary to shock first in 
small shocks and later to put two or three of the small shocks 
into one larger one. In shocking, it is desirable to employ 
some system. It is a good plan to set up two pairs of bundles, 
all leaning together, then to set bundles around these in a 
systematic manner until from 12 to 24 have been put into 
the shock. Care should be used to put approximately the 
same number of bundles on each side and to set them up 
firm and snug so that the shock will be evenly balanced and 
will stand straight. The shocks should be tied securely 
near the top to help in keeping out the rain and to prevent 
them from being blown down. 

106. Stacking. Owing to the large percentage of mois- 
ture contained in fodder corn, it is seldom possible to stack 
it so that it will keep, except in very cold weather. This 
fact is one of the objectionable features of the crop. It may 
be set on end one bundle deep in a mow or shed with perfect 



86 



FIELD CROPS 



safety, but it is not safe to stack it or to put it in large piles. 
The method most commonly followed is to reshock in the 
fields into large, well-made shocks when it is cured and to 
haul it to the feed lots only as used. 

CORN FOR SILAGE 

107. Importance. Corn silageis coming to play a more and 
more prominent part in the economy of the farm. It is well 

understood that, on ac- 
count of the important 
relation of live stock to 
soil fertility, the highest 
type of permanent agri- 
culture can be applied on 
the majority of farms 
only when a reasonable 
number of domestic ani- 
mals is kept. If live 
stock is to be kept on 
the farm profitably, it is 
highly important that it 
be supplied with an 
abundance of feed at all 
seasons of the year and 
that this feed be as eco- 
nomical as is consistent with good feeding. No feed has yet 
been discovered that gives better results, under ordinary farm 
conditions, than that from pastures; but pastures supply feed 
for live stock only a portion of the year, and can not always be 
relied upon even then. The next cheapest feed, so far as cost 
of production is concerned, is clover or alfalfa hay, and 
these are followed by corn fodder. 

Neither pasture nor the ordinary hay crops are as certain 
to yield profitably as is a well-cultivated corn crop. Stock 
raisers are rapidly realizing that corn is the most reliable 





1 


Si 




M 


^^s 




5:^fwA^5-< 


H^H 



Figure 33. — Filling the silo. The whole corn 
plant is preserved for feeding without waste. 
The silo is becoming more and more im- 
portant wherever corn is grown. 



CORN FOR SILAGE 87 

grain and roughage crop and that the most satisfactory 
way of storing a good portion of this crop, where it is to be 
fed on the farm, is by means of a silo. The silo has been 
shown to help very effectively in cases of shortage of pasture 
and failure of clover and other hay crops. Corn silage is not 
only a sure crop, but it is a very palatable, nutritious, suc- 
culent feed, that supplies, throughout the winter and during 
dry times in the summer, much the same feed conditions as 
^re afforded by good pastures. 

108. The Production of Silage. Corn for silage may be 
grown on any good, tillable land, especially any land that is 
well adapted to the production of an ordinary corn crop. 
Corn for silage is most commonlj^ grown in the same manner 
as corn for grain, though those who have had most experience 
with silage plant about one half thicker, either in drills or on 
hills, than for ear corn. The cultivation of corn for silage is 
the same as that commonly given to corn for grain. 

The varieties of corn that seem to give best results in 
the production of silage in a given locality are usually those 
that give the best yields of grain. As good silage can be 
made only from corn that is practically mature, it is unwise 
to use any of the large, coarse-growing varieties in sections 
where they cannot complete their growth. 

109. Harvesting for Silage. When the corn is ripe 
enough to cut and shock for ear corn, or when the ears are 
well dented but before the leaves and stalks are dry, it is 
ready for the silo. It is commonly cut with a corn binder, 
then loaded on low wagons and hauled at once to the cutter, 
where it is cut into small bits and blown into the silo. The 
silo is simply an air-tight receptacle, built strong enough 
to hold this heavy, green material. 

No preservative is applied to silage. It is simply pro- 
tected from the air, hence it cannot spoil. The surface and 
any parts that may be exposed, as by a hole in the silo, are 
quickly sealed over by the molding of a few inches of the corn. 



88 FIELD CROPS 

110. Cost and Feeding Value. Statistics gathered in 
Minnesota show that it normally costs from $18 to $20 
an acre, including rent, to grow and store silage. A fair 
yield is from 9 to 12 tons to the acre. Silage may be fed 
to all classes of live stock, and is highly prized by all who 
have had experience with a good quality of it. Compared 
with clover hay, a ton of silage is worth $4 when clover 
hay is worth $12. With clover hay at this price, an acre 
of average corn stored in the silo is worth approximately $40. 

111. Stacking Silage. In some parts of the country 
where sUos have not yet been introduced, corn grown for 
silage is cut and stacked green out of doors with very good 
results. The stacks are usually made round, with the butts 
of the bundles out. The ears may be stripped from the outer 
row of bundles and thrown into the middle of the stack so 
that the butts can be packed more closely together. The 
stacks should be made as solid as possible and should be 12 
or more feet in diameter and 12 or more feet high. The 
higher the stacks are, if built so that they will not lean, the 
better. When these stacks are built they are usually, though 
not always, weighted down with earth and stones or with 
patented compressors to facilitate their settling. 

The outer part of the stack spoils by molding and thus 
seals up the inner part and provides the same conditions 
afforded by a silo. The outer spoiled part is cut off and only 
the inner part, or good silage, is fed. While considerable corn 
is wasted by this method, it provides a cheap form of succu- 
lent feed and does well until silos may be afforded. 

MARKETING AND RETURNS 

112. Marketing. Corn is commonly sold from the farm 
on the ear, though it is sometimes shelled before it is mar- 
keted. The usual practice is to sell the ear corn to local 
dealers, who store it or shell and ship it. Corn is generally 
shelled before it is shipped, because shelled corn occupies 



MARKET GRADES 89 

only about half as much space as the same quantity of 
ear corn. No treatment is ordinarily given to the grain on 
the farm; it is sold as it comes from the crib. When shipped 
from the local buyer to the central market, some of the dirt 
is taken out in shelling, but no large proportion of it is 
removed. On account of the method of harvesting, however, 
corn is usually quite free from weed seeds and other foreign 
matter. A large part of the crop is fed on the farms or in the 
communities where it is produced. The average shipments 
out of the country where it is grown do not exceed one 
fifth of the crop. Illinois, Nebraska, Ohio, and Indiana 
, show the largest percentages of shipments. 

The legal weight of a bushel of shelled corn is 56 pounds; 
of corn on the ear, 70 pounds. If corn is sold within a short 
time after it is harvested, while it still contains a high per- 
centage of moisture, it is customary to allow 75 or even 80 
pounds to the bushel. Ordinary air-dry corn will shell 
about 56 pounds of grain to 70 pounds of ears, but an extra 
good sample may sheU as much as 60 pounds. Corn that 
is held over is likely to shrink about 18 per cent. 

113. Market Grades. Market grades of corn are fixed 
by the Federal Bureau of Markets, which divides market 
corn into three general classes, white, yellow, and mixed. 
White corn must be at least 98 per cent white by weight; 
yellow corn must be at least 95 per cent yellow by weight; 
and mixed corn includes all corn not coming within the 
limits of the two classes just named. These three classes 
are then divided into seven grades for each class, known as 
No. 1 white. No. 1 yellow. No. 2 white. No. 3 mixed, etc. 
The lowest grade is known as sample grade. No. 1 corn 
of each class shall be: 

Cool, and sweet, shall have a test weight per bushel of at least 
55 pounds, may contain not more than 14 per cent of moisture, may 
contain not more than 2 per cent of foreign material and cracked corn, 
and may contain not more than 2 per cent of damaged corn and no 
heat-damaged kernels. 



90 FIELD CROPS 

Specifications for No. 2, No. 3, No. 4, No. 5, and No. 6 
in each class are similar, differing as follows: 

The minimum test weights per bushel are, No. 2, 53 pounds; No. 
3, 51 pounds; No. 4, 49 pounds; No. 5, 47 pounds; No. 6, 44 pounds. 

The maximum percentages of moisture are. No. 2, 14; No. 3, 15.5; 
No. 4, 17.5; No. 5, 21.5; and No. 6, 23.0. 

The maximum percentages of foreign matter and cracked corn are, 
No. 2, 3; No. 3, 4; No. 4, 5; No. 5, 6; and No. 6, 7. 

The maximum percentages of damaged kernels are, No. 2, 4; No. 

3, 6; No. 4, 8; No. 5, 10; and No. 6, 15. Of these, 0.1 per cent may be 
heat damaged in No. 2 corn, 0.3 per cent in No. 3, 0.5 per cent in No. 

4, 1 per cent in No. 5, and 3 per cent in No. 6. 

Sample grade corn is any corn which does not come within the re- 
quirements of any of the grades from No. 1 to No. 6, inclusive, or which 
has any commercially objectionable foreign odor, or is heating, hot, in- 
fested with live weevils or other insects injurious to stored grain, or is 
otherwise of distinctively low quality. 

Corn of No. 6 grade may be musty or sour; all higher grades must 
be cool and sweet. 

The greater part of the corn which reaches the Chicago 
market is No. 2 and No. 3 yellow, the quantities of these two 
grades usually being about the same. Three or four times 
as much yellow as white corn is marketed in Chicago. The 
usual difference in feeding value between No. 2 and No. 3 
corn is about 2 cents a bushel, but the difference in market 
price may considerably exceed this figure. The lowest 
price recorded for No. 2 corn on the Chicago market in the 
five years from 1913 to 1917 was 463/2 cents in 1913; the high- 
est, $2.36 in 1902. The average of the annual lowest prices for 
the five years was 65.6 cents; of the highest prices, 118.7 cents. 

114. Exports. Though the United States produces 
about three fourths of the world's crop of corn, a very small 
portion of the crop is normally exported. In the five years 
from 1909 to 1913, the average annual exportation of corn 
from the United States was 45,054,000 bushels, while Argen- 
tina exported 115,749,000 bushels annually during this period. 
No other country was a considerable factor in the world's 
trade in corn, the two just named furnishing about 60 per 



COST OF PRODUCTION 



91 



cent of the entire quantity. The exportation from the United 
States represents only about 1.5 per cent of the production 
during the period just mentioned, while the annual expor- 
tations since 1901 have not exceeded 4.4 per cent of the 
crop in any one year. The tendency is for the percentage 
exported to decrease rather than to increase, except that 




Figure 34.- 



• Reid's yellow dent corn, a large, yellow variety which has been 
carefully selected for many years. 



under war conditions the export demand has greatly in- 
creased. The principal ports from which corn is shipped 
are New York, Baltimore, New Orleans and Galveston. 

115. Cost of Production. The best available informa- 
tion on the cost of producing corn is that contained in the 
April, 1911, Crop Reporter, published by the Bureau of 
Crop Estimates of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. In 
this number, the reports of about 6,000 correspondents in 
all parts of the country are tabulated. The figures are for 
the cost of producing corn in 1909. The average of all 
the reports shows that it cost $12.27 to produce an acre of 
corn in that year; as the average yield was 32.4 bushels, 



92 



FIELD CROPS 



the bushel cost was 37.9 cents. The items which went to 
make up this cost of $12.27 to the acre were: Fertihzers, 
82 cents; preparation of land, $2.11; seed, 24 cents; planting, 
44 cents; cultivation, $2.24; gathering $2.20; miscellaneous, 
47 cents; land rental or interest, $3.75. The relative impor- 
tance of these items naturally varies somewhat in different 
sections of the United States, the fertilizer cost being high 
in the East and South and little or nothing in the Central 
and Western states, while other items show some differences. 
The cost, value, and difference between value and cost 
for the different sections are shown in Table V. At the 
present time (1918), on account of general economic as well 
as war conditions, all production costs are at least 50 per 
higher than those shown here. 

Table V. Acre cost of production of corn, acre valtie, and difference 
between value and cost for the United States and for the different 
sections of the country in the year 1909. 



Section 


Acre cost 


Acre value 


Difference 


North Atlantic states 


Dollars 

20.44 
14.43 
11.29 
14.07 
10.58 
11.66 
12.27 


Dollars 

30.17 
22.10 
17.14 
23.43 
17.73 
20.42 
20.09 


Dollars 

9.73 


South Atlantic states 


7.67 


South Central states 


5.85 


East North Central states 


9.36 


West North Central states 


7.15 


Far Western states 


8.76 


The United States 


7.82 







As the table shows, there was not a wide range between 
the different sections in the matter of difference between 
cost and value, the extremes being $5.85 to the acre in the 
South Central and $9.73 in the North Atlantic states. 
Where the cost of production was highest, in the North 
Atlantic states, the difference between value and cost was 
also highest, due to high yield and high price to the bushel. 
In Illinois and Iowa, the two states of largest production, the 
respective figures were: Acre cost, $13.25 and $12.39; 
bushel cost, 31 and 30 cents; value less cost, $9.38 and $8.43. 



CORN IN ROTATION 93 

116. Acre Value. The average annual value of an acre 
of corn for the United States for the five years from 1912 
to 1916 was $16.94, but in 1917 it was $33.85. The highest 
value is shown in the North Atlantic states, the Far Western 
and the South Central states ranking next in order. The 
average acre value in Illinois for the five years from 1912 
to 1916 was $19.06 and in Iowa, $20.17. In 1917 the acre 
values in these two states were $41. 80 and $39.96, respectively. 
The highest acre value in 1917 was in Connecticut, $109.65; 
the lowest, in Oklahoma, $12.50. This low acre value was 
due to low average yield, 8.5 bushels, caused by drought. 

CORN IN CROP ROTATIONS 

117. Com Decreases Fertility. It is well known that 
if a piece of land that has been cropped to grain for a number 
of years is planted to corn and cultivated well, better crops 
of grain will be produced on the field the following year or 
years. This has led to the belief that corn is a soil-building 
crop. Tests conducted at many experiment stations where 
corn has been grown on the same plat continuously for a 
number of years without fertilizer show that the produc- 
tivity of the plats has gradually decreased until very poor 
yields result. In fact, these experiments show that the 
productivity of the soil is more rapidly decreased by corn 
than by grain crops. These two facts seem somewhat con- 
trary, but when studied prove to be just what might rea- 
sonably be expected. 

118. Cultivation Liberates Plant Food. As stated else- 
where, plant food is made soluble or available for plants very 
largely by the decomposition of vegetable matter. Vege- 
table matter can decompose or rot only when in the pres- 
ence of air and moisture. Hay in the mow does not rot, 
because it is kept dry. Silage in the silo does not rot, be- 
cause air is kept away from it. Vegetable matter in the soil, 
that is, manure and roots and stems of plants, will naturally 



94 



FIELD CROPS 



decompose more rapidly if proper conditions of air and mois- 
ture are maintained than when they are not present. 

The corn crop is commonly cultivated throughout the 
growing season. This cultivation aerates the soil and con- 
serves moisture, hence decomposition takes place more 
rapidly in a cultivated field than in a field that is not culti- 




Figure 3.5. — Ear of Boone County White corn. A popular white dent variety 
in southern Indiana, Illinois, and Iowa and northern Missouri. Grown 
to some extent in the South. 

vated. This rapid decomposition caused by cultivation 
liberates large quantities of plant food. On this account, 
planting a field to corn stimulates the liberation of plant 
food and naturally leaves the soil richer in available plant 
food for succeeding crops. This may easily account for 
the larger yields which usually follow cropping a field for 
one year to corn. It is evident, however, that if the field is 
planted to corn year after year, the supply of vegetable mat- 
ter will be quite rapidly depleted, so that the soil will soon 
fail to respond to the stimulation of cultivation. Thus, 
when a field is planted for a number of years in succession, 
it rapidly decreases in productivity. 



IMPORTANCE IN ROTATION. 



95 



119. Importance of Com in the Rotation. Owing to the 
stimulating and the cleaning effects of cultivation on the soil 
and the influence the crop has on the number of hve stock 
kept, by furnishing an abundance of cheap and desirable 
feed, corn has a very important relation to the cropping 
system of the farm. Diversification, rotation of crops, 




Figure 36. — Minnesota No. 13, a type of yellow dent corn adapted to the North- 
ern states, improved by the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station. 

and the keeping of live stock usually lead to increased pro- 
duction and larger farm profits. 

120. Rotations Which Include Com. One of the very 
common and desirable rotations for corn is the following: 
First year, grain; second year, clover; third year, corn. 
This rotation is giving good results, especially on some of the 
lighter soils. On heavier soils, there is danger, if the corn 
and clover are fed on the farm and the manure returned to 
the land, that the soil will become so rich that the grain 
crop following the corn will lodge. It is, however, an excel- 
lent system of rotation for building up run-down soils. 
When they are so built up that difficulty is experienced in the 



96 FIELD CROPS 

lodging of grain crops, the rotation may be made longer by 
growing corn two years in succession. This plan makes the 
rotation a four-year one, as follows: First year, grain; 
second year, clover; third, and fourth years, corn. Owing 
to the strong feeding habits of the crop and to the rapid 
decomposition of vegetable matter which takes place in corn 
fields, two years of corn will usually reduce the available 
plant food in the soil sufficiently to permit the growth of the 
proper grain crop without danger from lodging. 

Corn may be used in combinations in rotations, depend- 
ing entirely upon the needs of the farm. A four-year rota- 
tion adapted to a farm on which it is desired to grow a com- 
paratively large quantity of grain might be as follows: 
First year, grain; second year, clover; third year, corn; 
fourth year, grain. If desirable, another grain crop might 
be added, which would make a five-year rotation with one 
year of corn, one year of clover, and three years of grain. 
Unless considerable quantities of fertiUzer were applied, 
such a rotation would by no means maintain the produc- 
tivity of the soil. Another practical five-year rotation in- 
cluding corn is: First year, grain; second year, meadow; 
third year, pasture; fourth year, corn; fifth year, grain. 

In the Southern states, corn ranks second only to cotton 
in importance. These two crops are almost always included 
in any rotation which is devised for this section. Cowpeas 
are quite generally grown to add nitrogen and are sometimes 
plowed under to increase the vegetable matter in the soil. 
They are often planted with the corn, either in rows or 
between them at the last cultivation. A very good rotation 
for the South is: First year, corn and cowpeas; second 
year, cotton followed by winter grain; third year, grain, 
followed by cowpeas for hay. 

In Chapter XXVI the general subject of the rotation of 
crops is discussed in its broader aspects. 



SELECTION OF SEED CORN 97 

SELECTION OF SEED CORN 

121. Importance of Good Seed. One of the important 
factors in the production of a good crop of corn is good seed ; 
that is, seed of the desired type, carefully selected from corn 
adapted to the locality, and stored so that it will remain good. 
There is no doubt that it is possible, in nearly every com- 
munity, to obtain greatly increased yields of corn simply 
by giving careful attention to the matter of the selection and 
The care of the seed. While good crops may be produced 
from only fairly good seed if soil and other conditions are 
favorable, it is the universal result that ' where carefully 
selected seed is used, increased yields are obtained. Weather 
conditions are often unfavorable at planting time, and only 
seed of strong vitality can be depended upon to withstand 
these unfavorable conditions and send forth good, strong 
plants. Time spent in selecting seed corn is, as a rule, the 
most profitable that is devoted to the corn crop. 

122. Quantity of Seed to Select. From fifteen to 
twenty ears of corn are required to plant an acre. When 
selecting corn by the ordinary field method, it is not possible 
to make as careful a selection as is desired for the final seed 
for planting. On this account it is recommended that at 
least fifty ears of corn be selected for each acre of corn it is 
planned to grow the following year. This will leave margin 
enough for careful selection the following spring, and the 
seed thus discarded can often be sold to advantage or used 
as fodder corn seed. 

123. Time to Select. The time of selection will naturally 
depend largely upon the locality. Corn gains nothing 
by being left in the field after it is mature and the sooner it is 
gathered and placed under cover to diy out, where it will 
not be affected by the weather, the better it will be for seed 
purposes. In the North, it is extremely important that corn 
be selected early enough in the fall to allow ample time for it 

7— 



9S 



FIELD CROPS 



to become dry before freezing weather. For this reason it 
is very advisable, if one does not have temperate storage, 
to select corn just as soon as it is well ripened. 

Another important factor in favor of early selection, es- 
pecially in the North, is that one may choose the ears from 

plants that have a tend- 
ency to ripen early. Al- 
most universally, some 
ears and plants mature 
from a few days to two 
or three weeks earlier 
than some of the other 
ears and plants. If the 
seed is selected from these 
plants, there is a tend- 
ency to fix the character 
of early maturity. If the 
corn is not selected until 
all the plants are mature 
or until they have all been 
killed by frost, it is not 
possible to tell the early 
maturing ears from those 
that matured later. If 
selection is deferred and 
the season happened to be favorable, so that the corn con- 
tinued to grow for a week or more after the date of the first 
killing frost, ears might be selected that matured eight or ten 
days after that date. Corn planted from such seed the follow- 
ing year is likely to be killed by frost before the main part 
of the crop is matured. 

Another advantage of early selection, while the plants 
are all in their normal condition, is that it is possible at that 
time to give attention to the character of the plant on which 
the ear grew, which is an important factor in getting the 




Figure 37. — The kind of corn which should 
not be used for seed. 



PRIZE EARS OF CORN 99 

best possible seed corn. The stalk should be vigorous, of 
medium height, and not alone in the hill. The ear selected 
should be of medium size, mature, and hang tip downward 
from a medium height. 

124. How to Select. In the North, it is important to 
select seed as soon as the crop is ripened and before it is 
practical to husk the crop. The following method of selec- 
tion is commonly practiced: Go into the field from which 

_the selection is to be made, with a common sack swung over 
one shoulder by means of a string so that the open end will 
be directly in front of the body and so that both hands will 
be free to use. Then, by walking between two rows, ears 
of desirable appearance can be examined and the good ones 
husked and put into the sack. Selection can be made quite 
rapidly in this way. It is desirable to have a wagon at the 
end of the field into which the sack may be emptied when it 
gets too heavy to carry comfortably. One man can easily 
select five hundred ears of corn in a day in this way and do 
reasonably careful work. 

Allowing fifty ears of this field-selected seed to each acre 
which is to be planted the following spring, one would select 
enough in this manner in one day to plant ten acres. Allow- 
ing $2 a day for labor, the extra cost of seed corn saved in 
this manner will not exceed 20 cents an acre, which is cer- 
tainly very reasonable for the better grade of seed obtained. 

In the southern part of the corn belt, seed selection may 
be deferred until the main part of the crop is husked. The 
method usually followed in selecting seed at this time is to 
have a box fastened on the side of the wagon box into which 
the corn is husked, so that whenever a desirable ear is found 
it may be put into this small box and kept separate for seed. 

125. The Type to Select. One of the laws of breeding 
which is recognized by everyone familiar with either plants 
or animals is that like produces like. If a person wishes to 
grow corn of any particular type or quality, he can expect 



100 



FIELD CROPS 




p 



a 



en n 
X 03 



0«3 



a >> 

O D 

^^ 
o 

■c 2 

O t- 
03 



FIXING THE TYPE 101 

to do this only by planting seed of that type and quahty. 
Nearly everyone desires to grow corn that yields well and is 
of good quality. To accomplish this result it is necessary 
to select seed ears of the type known to give satisfactory 
yields of the quality desired. 

If one has a variety of corn that is larger than it is deemed 
desirable to produce, the variety may be made smaller by 
selecting ears of the desired size. On the other hand, if it is 
thought advisable to increase the size of the corn, larger 
'ears should be selected. Likewise, any character that is 
desired may be fixed by persistently selecting every year 
ears of corn having that character. 

126. Fixing the Type in Mind. One needs but to examine 
an ordinary wagon box full of corn as it is picked to be con- 
vinced that there are good and poor ears in every field. 
Also, there are usually a number of good ears in dif- 
ferent types in every lot of corn ; for instance, there may be 
good ears of corn having twenty rows of kernels and other 
good ears having only sixteen rows of kernels, all coming 
from the same field or variety. In selecting seed corn it is 
highly desirable that one have the desired type clearly in 
mind and select to that type persistently. It is a good plan 
to look over a large number of ears and pick out one that 
is as near the ideal as possible. This ear should be examined 
occasionally to keep clearly in mind the type sought. 

The Extension Division of the Iowa State College has 
suggested four questions which should always be asked re- 
garding each ear of corn selected. These questions are: (1) 
Will it yield? (2) Will it mature? (3) Does it show im- 
provement? (4) Will it grow? These four simple, practi- 
cal questions may easily be kept in mind and if all can be 
answered affirmatively as to each ear of corn selected, it is 
reasonably certain that the seed corn is good. 

127. Yield and Maturity. Indications of yield are size of 
ear, depth of kernel, type of kernel, and proportion of corn 



102 FIELD CROPS 

to cob. The importance of yield is understood by all. Indi- 
cations of maturity are firmness of the ear of corn or firmness 
of the kernels on the cob, the ease with which the kernels 
may be shelled from the cob, and the firmness and char- 
acter of the kernel. Indications of immaturity are discolora- 
tion, blistering, or imperfect development. The impor- 
tance of matui'ity can hardly be overestimated. There is 
nothing quite so discouraging in corn-growing as a crop of 







^^^waj^*^ S^Ll^^^^^^^^H 


Pi 




^Hk^'^^i^^^I 


■^^^H 








^B^l 


Bl 



Figure 39. — Butts of ears. 

soft corn. Corn that is well matured has a considerably 
higher feeding value than immature corn. Mature corn can 
be kept easily throughout the year and will germinate strong 
the following spring, while immature is very likely to be in- 
jured or greatly weakened for seed. The farmer who grows 
corn that is practically certain to mature may have slightly 
smaller yields in favorable years, but he usually more than 
makes these up by having a fair crop even in poor corn 
years, when many others have failures. In poor years for 
corn production, the supply of good corn is short, the crop is 
worth more to the bushel than in good corn years, which 
fact more than compensates for the slightly smaller yields 
in specially favorable seasons. 

128. Indications of improvement in corn are seen chiefly 
in the uniformity of the ears, just as pure-bred animals are 
much more uniform in type than scrubs. If a sample of 
corn is fairly uniform, it indicates that it has been bred along 
one line for at least several generations. By having its 



STRENGTH OF GERMINATION 103 

characters firmly fixed, it is more likely to bring forth good 
corn than is a sample that lacks this quality. 

129. Indications of strength of germination are maturity, 
large germs, and dry, sound, bright-looking kernels. Such 
indications are not always reliable guides and the only prac- 
tical way of being sure that an ear or a sample of corn 
will germinate well is to test it. (Sections 74-77). 




Figure 40.- — -Tips of ears: (1) A good tip, well-filled; (2) a long, tapering, ir- 
regular tip; (;i) a broad tip, not filled out; (4) an unfilled tip. Only No. 1 
is desirable. 

130. The Value of Good Ears. The object of the corn 
grower is to produce one good ear of corn on each stalk and 
to have at least three strong stalks to each hill. On an acre 
of corn planted 3 feet 8 inches apart each way, there are 
3,240 hills. If one good 10-ounce ear of corn in produced on 
each hill, a yield of 28.9 bushels will be obtained. This yield 
is 2.9 bushels to the acre more than the average yield of corn 
throughout the United States during the ten years from 
1908 to 1917. A perfect stand with a 10-ounce ear produced 
on each of three stalks in each hill would produce a yield of 
86.7 bushels to the acre, which yield may be reasonably 
excepted on good corn land in the corn belt from good 
methods of culture. 

131. The Form of Ear. The form of ear and type of 
kernel of course depend largely upon the variety of corn. 
In a general way, the ears that have proved capable of pro- 
ducing the best yields are somewhat uniform in circumference 
from butt to tip; that is, they do not taper noticeably. Ears 



104 FIELD CROPS 

on which the rows of kernels are straight are to be pre- 
ferred to ears with crooked, irregular rows, as a much larger 
proportion of the kernels is uniform and consequently suit- 
able for seed. Ears of corn with coarse, rough butts are 
objectionable also. It is generally advisable to select ears 
whose tips are rather well filled. If the tips are not filled, 
the corn is immature or has not developed properly. 




Figure 41. — Kernels showing large and small germs, taken from differ- 
ent eara of corn. The left-hand kernel in each pair shows low feed- 
ing value, while the right-hand kernel with large germs shows a high 
per cent of oil and protein. (Holden.) 

132. Type of Kernel. In 'the careful selection of corn, 
the kernel can not be overlooked. Each kernel should be 
of such shape that the space about the cob is fully occupied. 
Each kernel should show a large, strong germ, because the 
germ is the plantlet that is to make the next generation of 
corn. The germ is also of importance because it contains 
a considerable portion of the feeding value of the kernel, 
hence kernels with large germs are worth more for feed than 
those with small ones. Kernels with sharp-pointed tips are 
sure to have small germs. Full development and bright 
lustre are essential. 



STORING SEED CORN 



105 



It is desirable to obtain as large a proportion of shelled 
corn to cob as possible, and depth of kernel is a very fair 
indication of this proportion; but the fact that deep-kerneled 
varieties are almost always later in maturing than the types 
with more shallow kernels must not be 
overlooked. Care and judgment must 
always be used to select kernels as deep 
as is practical, and still get corn that 
will mature safely in the locahty. 

STORING SEED CORN 

133. Conditions for Storing. In 

storing seed corn, one must recognize 
the fact that in each kernel of corn 
there is a small, living plant, which 
under, certain conditions may be in- 
jured. If corn is placed in a damp, 
warm atmosphere, the germ is likely 
to be injured by molding. If the corn 
is exposed to severe cold while it still 
contains a large percentage of moisture, 
the cells in the germ are very likely 
to be broken by the expansion of the 
moisture on freezing and the germ thus 
destroyed. It is thus apparent that 
the safe storage of seed corn requires 
that it should be dried out quickly, 
that it be kept in a place where it will 

remain dry, and that it be not allowed to freeze until it is 
thoroughly dry. Though corn will stand considerable freez- 
ing without injury when it is dry, it is better to protect it 
from frost if possible, for it is difficult to determine just 
when it is dry enough to be safe. 

134. Storage Houses. Where large quantities of seed 
corn are handled, as is the case with seed firms, special seed- 




Figure 42. — The seed corn 
tree. Nails are driven 
in rows on the sides of 
the post and the seed 
ears are stuck on them. 



106 FIELD CROP 8 

houses well provided with ventilation are constructed. The 
corn is put into racks or very narrow cribs, which are often 
made of woven wire so that free circulation of air is possible. 
On the farm, where only enough seed corn is saved for home 
use, more careful methods can very profitably be followed. 




Figure 43. — Several methods of placing seed corn for storing; the double- 
string method at the left. 

135. Storing on the Farm. The right method is to store 
the ears so that no two are touching and so that each ear is 
exposed to free circulation of air. 

Any convenient place where corn can be dried out before 
cold weather, preferably without artificial heat, and where 
mice can be kept from it may be used with very satisfactory 
results. A well- ventilated attic with at least two windows 
that may be opened or closed at will and which gets some 
heat from the rooms below is an ideal place for storing seed 
corn. If the cellar is dry and well-ventilated, it affords a 
good place for storing seed corn ; but, if it is not dry, corn 
should not be stored there. Cellars are not ususally suitable 



USES OF CORN 107 

unless they are provided with furnace heat. Storing in 
granaries over bins of grain is not safe, as the grain is Ukely 
to heat or to give off moisture and injure the corn. 

136. Methods of Storing. As previously stated, (Section 
134), seed corn in large quantities is usually stored in narrow 
bins through which air can circulate quite freely. Some 
practical methods of storing smaller quantities of corn on the 
farm are shown in Figures 42 and 43. The seed corn tree is a 

-square, octagonal, or round post 4 to 6 feet high, fixed to 
stand erect on a broad base. Finishing nails are driven into 
it just far enough apart so that when ears are jabbed on 
them, butts first, they will just miss one another. This 
makes an excellent place to store seed corn. Another very 
convenient way of hanging up seed corn is the double string 
method. Other ways are illustrated in Figure 43. 

USES OF CORN 

137. Importance as Food. The place corn has attained 
as most important of all American farm crops is due to the 
quality and variety of food products it furnishes and to the 
fact that no other cereal crop can compete with it success- 
fully in the quantity of food it will produce to the acre or to 
the unit of labor expended. 

Corn is used for a great variety of purposes, both in its 
natural state and in the form of manufactured products. 
Its greatest and most common use is in the form of feed for 
live stock. It is used for this purpose as grain, as roughage 
in the forms of fodder corn, silage, and stover, as green feed, 
and as a pasture crop. 

By far the most important part of the corn plant is the 
grain. Its value in the United States is greater than the 
value of any other two farm crops produced and greater 
than the wheat, oat, barley, flax, rye, and tobacco crops 
combined. As a feed for live stock, a pound of cornmeal is 
worth more than a pound of oats, barley, or bran. 



108 FIELD CROPS 

About three fourths of the total net nutrients of the 
stalk and ears is contained in the grain. The whole kernel 
contains 11.33 per cent of crude protein, 82.26 per cent of 
carbohydrates, 4.86 per cent of fat, and 1.54 per cent of ash. 

138. Use as Human Food. As food for man, corn is 
most largely used in the form of cornmeal, from which 
numerous dishes are prepared. It is also used as hominy, 
corn flour, cerealine, green corn, canned corn, pop corn, 
starch, sirup, corn flakes, and corn oil. The refined 
oil is used for shortening, and sometimes as a substitute for 
olive oil. 

139. Manufactured Products. One product of the corn 
crop is canned green sweet corn, which represents an industry 
of considerable importance. Starch is a valuable product 
manufactured from the grain of corn which is used both as 
food and for starching, or stiffening, fabrics. It is likewise 
converted into a form of sirup known as corn sirup. Corn- 
meal is the finely ground corn, largely used as food. Corn 
flour is even more finely ground ; it is used as a partial sub- 
stitute for wheat flour in bread making. In* the manufacture 
of starch, flour, and cornmeal, the germs of corn are removed. 
These germs are heated and pressed and a valuable oil is 
extracted from them. This oil in the crude form is used in 
painting and as a lubricant, and is vulcanized into a cheap 
grade of rubber. It may also be refined and used as a 
food product. Corn flakes and cerealine are two very 
palatable breakfast cereals also manufactured from corn. 
Alcohol and distilled liquors are manufactured largely from 
this grain. The pith of cornstalks is used in the manu- 
facture of explosives and as a packing material for battle 
ships. The cobs are made into pipes, and the stalks are 
now being used to some extent in the manufacture of paper. 
Corn husks are used for making mattresses and for packing. 

140. By-products. The by-products from corn canning 
factories, the husks and cobs, are often used in the form of 



DISEASES OF CORN 109 

silage or as green feed. Corn cake, a by-product left from 
the manufacture of corn oil from the germs of corn, is also 
valuable stock feed. Gluten meal, a by-product from starch 
factories, is richer in protein and considerably richer in 
carbohydrates than linseed meal. It is highly prized as 
stock feed. Corn bran, another by-product in the, manu- 
facture of cornmeal, cornstarch, and breakfast foods, is 
valuable feed for stock, though it is not as valuable pound 
for pound as common wheat bran. It is quite commonly 
mixed with gluten meal, and the mixture is then sold as 
gluten feed. Distillery slops, a watery by-product in the 
manufacture of alcohol, is of considerable importance as 
stock feed, though naturally it must be fed locally as it is 
too bulky to ship far. Malt left from distilleries is dried 
and sold as distillers' grains, a valuable live stock feed. 

DISEASES OF CORN 

141. Smut. Corn smut is well known to every one 
familiar with corn. In some years, when conditions are 
favorable, considerable damage is done by it. It appears 
as black, slimy masses, which may be on the stalks, leaves, 
tassels, or ears. Corn smut is a parasitic plant which lives 
on the juices of the corn plant, and in this way reduces the 
total valuable product of the crop. The smut masses which 
appear on the surface are made up of myriads of spores 
by which the disease is reproduced. These spores are 
capable of living over winter in the soil or in manure piles. 
They may even multiply in the manure under favorable 
conditions and then be spread on the soil with it. When 
they start to grow in the spring, the smut plants they pro- 
duce attack the young corn plants, sending their mycelia 
into the tissues. Smut may attack corn at any time during 
the growing season, usually most abundantly when the plants 
are growing rapidly and are consequently tender, usually 
when they are a foot or more high. 



110 FIELD CROPS 

There is no method of seed treatment that will prevent 
smut, as the spores are not carried to any great extent 
by the seed corn. Some of the practical means at hand of 
checking this disease are to remove the smutted parts of 
the corn plants from the field and burn them, and to use 
care to prevent the smut spores from getting into the 
manure. They usually get into the manure through feeding 
smutted stalks to cattle. Rotation of crops will have a 
tendency to decrease the prevalence of smut. Likewise, 
the application of manure to grass land a year or so in 
advance of planting the field to corn will have a tendency 
to reduce the infection from the manure. 

142. Feeding Smutted Com. Many persons have thought 
that the "cornstalk disease," which sometimes attacks cat- 
tle that are feeding in stalk fields, was caused by the eating 
of smut. Experiments have shown that it is due to some 
other cause, since quite large quantities of smut have been 
fed to cattle, as much as several pounds a day to each ani- 
mal, without any detrimental results. These experiments 
indicate that there is some food value in the smut masses 
and that smutted stalks may be fed without danger. 

143. Bacterial Diseases. Corn is subject to several 
bacterial diseases, but the damage done by them is not 
serious and they need not be discussed. 

INSECTS AFFECTING CORN 

144. Wireworms. Wireworms, which are the larvae of 
the chck beetle, sometimes do serious damage to corn for a 
year or so following the breaking up of sod land. The 
beetles deposit their eggs in sod land, and the following spring 
the eggs hatch in the form of small, reddish-brown, shiny 
worms. These worms live in the soil for a couple of years 
before they change into the beetle form. On this account 
they give trouble longer than do cutworms. The most effec- 
tive manner of combating these worms is fall plowing, 



INSECTS AFFECTING CORN 



111 



which disturbs the eggs and consequently causes many of 
them to be destroyed by the severity of freezing. 

145. Cutworms. Cutworms are one of the most com- 
mon enemies of the corn crop. Like wire worms, they are 
common only in or near sod land. They are usually grayish- 
brown in color, and are from 1 to IJ/g inches long. They 
attack the corn plants at night and cut them off just at 
the surface of the ground. 

Fields of corn are often com- 
pletely destroyed by them. 
Fall plowing, as suggested 
for wireworms, is somewhat 
effective with cutworms, 
though they are not entirely 
controlled by this treatment. 
Thorough cultivation until 
corn planting time is also 
effective, as many of the 
worms are injured by the 
cultivation, and if nothing 

is allowed to grow they have difficulty in getting food. The 
most efficient method of control is rotation of crops, with 
fields lejt in grass not more than two years in succession. 
Poison is sometimes used, though it is much more effective 
and practical in the garden than in the field. A mixture of 
1 pound of Paris green and 30 pounds of bran, scattered in 
little piles near the hills of corn, will destroy many of the 
worms. A little sirup or sugar added to this mixture makes 
it more effective. 

146. Army Worm. The army worm is a name given 
to certain types of cutworms when they appear in large 
numbers and move from field to field. They usually attack 
plants later in the season than the common cutworms, and 
eat the upper parts of the plants rather than those just at 
the surface of the ground. The most effective treatment 




Figure 44. — Army worm and adult moth. 



112 



FIELD CROPS 



for these worms is fall plowing and rotation of crops, as 
suggested for the common cutworm. 

147. White Grubs. The white grub, very commonly 
seen when plowing land, especially in the spring, is like- 
wise a serious pest to the corn plant. These grubs, like 
wireworms, live in the worm stage for two years, and con- 
sequently trouble from them may appear in two succeeding 
crops on the same field. They attack the roots of the corn 




Figure 45. — Chinch bug, ahilt at left, a, b, eggs;c, newly hatched larva; 
d, its tarsus; e, larva after first molt; f. same after second molt: g, 
pupa; h, enlarged leg of adult; j, tarsus of the same enlarged; i, pro- 
boscis, enlarged. (Riley) 

and very seriously check its growth. The same treatment 
as for wireworms is effective. 

148. Chinch Bugs. The chinch bug, which is common 
only periodically, is known best in grain fields, where its 
injury is greatest. Often entire fields are cut down by these 
insects. They live over winter in the adult stage, usually 
under rubbish of some kind. The female emerges in the 
spring and lays the eggs, and in a short time the young are 
hatched. The egg-laying period extends over several weeks, 
so the young are usually seen in all stages of growth. They 
attack plants anywhere above the ground, sucking the juices 
from them. As they usually appear in large numbers, their 
damage is very serious. Their attacks are usually after the 
grain fields on which they have been living are harvested. 

Clean farming is an effective remedy, because it reduces 
the number of suitable places in which the insects may live 



INSECTS AFFECTING CORN 113 

over winter. When it is feared that they are to attack 
a cornfield, a strip a rod or so wide, plowed and pulverized 
to fine dust, is effective in checking their progress. Fur- 
rows are often plowed about a field and a log dragged along 
the furrow to make a fine dust in it. The little insects, 
owing to the moving of the dust, have difficulty in crossing 
the furrow. Holes bored with a post auger at intervals 
along the furrow serve as efficient traps to catch large num- 
,bers of the insects. They may be killed in these holes by 
burying them or by pouring a small quantity of kerosene on 
them. Strips of tar are also effective in checking their 
progress. 

149. Grasshoppers, sometimes do serious injury to corn. 
Like chinch bugs, they attack the corn, as a rule, only after 
the other crops have been destroyed or harvested. The 
edges of the fields next to grass kind or grain fields are usu- 
ally attacked first. Fall plowing is one of the most effective 
methods of preventing the ravages of grasshoppers. They 
may be killed in large numbers by spraying a strip along 
the cornfield with arsenate of lead, mixed in the proportion 
of 5 pounds to 100 gallons of water. The cornstalks thus 
sprayed cannot be used safely as feed for stock. 

150. Grain Weevil. Corn in storage is sometimes 
attacked by the grain weevil. These insects eat into the 
heart of the kernel and destroy the germ. In seed corn 
they are most effectively controlled by putting, the corn in a 
tight box, can, or bin, and setting a shallow open dish of 
carbon bisulphide on top of the corn. This can be obtained 
at any drug store. It evaporates quickly and the gas, being 
heavier than air, settles down among the grains of corn and 
kills the insects in it. Care must be taken not to breathe the 
fumes of this gas. Large quantities of corn may be treated 
in the same way if tight rooms can be provided. 

151. Crows and gophers often attack corn after it is 
planted, digging up the kernels or young plants and de- 



114 FIELD CROPS 

stroying them. The work of these birds and rodents may 
be checked to a considerable extent by treating the seed corn 
with tar. The corn is put in a kettle slightly warmed and 
moistened; then tar is applied and the corn stirred, just 
enough being used to make a very thin film of tar about 
each kernel. A tablespoonful should be sufficient to treat 6 
or 8 quarts of seed corn. After the kernels are coated with 
tar, planting is facilitated by applying road dust, ashes, or 
air-slaked lime, so that the kernels will not stick together. 

IMPROVEMENT OF CORN 

152. Problems in Improvement. There are many prob- 
lems connected with the improvement of seed corn which 
are not met in the improvement of some of the other farm 
crops. The chief difficulty involved in improving corn 
comes from the fact that it is open-fertilized ; that is, the 
female flowers of one plant are naturally fertilized by pollen 
from the male flowers of other plants. On this account 
selected strains are very likely to become mixed with poorer 
individuals, and the work of selection may in this way be 
entirely lost or its effect greatly reduced. While progress 
is made by the selection of the best ears of corn, the ear 
indicates only the character of the mother plant on which 
it grew and nothing of the character of the male plant 
or plants that produced the pollen to fertilize its kernels. 
Both parent plants must be taken into consideration. 

153. The Ear~to-Row Method. The fact that appear- 
ance does not always enable one to select the ears that will 
give the largest yields has long been recognized. Many 
years ago corn breeders adopted the practice of planting the 
seed from the selected ears in separate rows side by side in a 
uniform field, so that their comparative yielding power could 
be determined. Such ear-to-row tests almost always indicate 
a very wide variation in the yielding power, even though 
such ears may be similar in appearance. It is not at all 



IMPROVEMENT OF CORN 115 

uncommon to find ears of the same variety and selected to 
the same type which yield 100 per cent more than other 
ears which, so far as one can tell, appear to be equally good. 
For ear-to-row tests, a uniform field wide enough to plant 
as many rows as there are ears to be tested should be pro- 




Figure 46. — The value of the ear-to-row test. The crates show the yield from 
two rows which appeared to be equally good. 

vided. The rows may be as long as desired ; they are limited, 
of course, by the number of kernels on the ears to be tested. 
A fair-sized ear will plant a row from 40 to 50 rods long. 
Many corn breeders use shorter rows and plant duplicate 
rows from each ear, to serve as an additional check in 
determining the best. At harvest time, the product of each 
ear is carefully weighed and the high-yielding and low-yield- 
ing ears thus discovered. The corn from the low-yielding 
rows is discarded, and only seed from the high-yielding rows 
is saved for future planting. 

The chief objection to this method is that the high-yield- 
ing rows of corn have been fertilized in part with pollen 
from other rows. The individual -kernels on the selected 



116 FIELD CROPS 

ears, while they are known to come from a mother plant of 
high yielding power, are from an unknown male parent, and 
many kernels in ears selected from the highest-yielding row 
have been fertilized by pollen from low-yielding rows. 

154. Pedigreed Varieties. In order that a plant or an 
animal may be pedigreed, its ancestors on both sides must 
be known. For a pedigree to be of material value, the 
performance records of its parents must likewise be known. 
It is quite evident that it would be impossible to produce a 
pedigreed variety of corn by the ear-to-row method of breed- 
ing outlined in the preceding paragraphs. While the mother 
plant and the record of the mother plant for generations 
might be known, the male plant is absolutely unknown. 

Pedigreed corn may be produced by starting with the 
ear-to-row test, selecting 50 to 100 ears as desired. The 
corresponding number of rows is planted from these ears, 
but half or less than half of the seed from each ear is used; 
the other half is reserved for future use. The parts of the 
ears retained are numbered to correspond with the ears plant- 
ed. The test is conducted in the same manner as the ear- 
to-row test. 

The advantage of this method is that after the ear-to- 
row test has shown which are the high-yielding ears, the 
best two may be mated by planting the remaining portions 
of them the following year and a cross between two ears 
of known high-yielding power thus obtained. For example: 
If ear No. 25 yields 80 bushels to the acre and ear No. 42 
yields 85 bushels, while the rest of the ears in the test yield 
70 bushels or less, it is plain that ears 25 and 42 are the 
highest yielding ears of the lot. The second year, the re- 
maining portions of these two ears are planted in an isolated 
seed plat, alternate rows being planted with seed from the 
two ears. When the corn in this plat begins to tassel, all 
the plants coming from one of the ears are detasseled and 



INBREEDING 117 

the other plants left to produce tassels. It is then certain 
that all the ears on the detasseled rows are fertilized with 
pollen coming from plants produced from the other ear. The 
seed saved from the detasseled rows may really be called 
pedigreed corn; that is, the male parent and its performance 
record, as well as the mother plant and its record, are defi- 
nitely known. 

In such a breeding plat, it is necessary to take every pre- 
caution to prevent the introduction of pollen from any other 
corn. All the corn produced on the row not detasseled 
would, of course, be inbred; that is, these ears would nat- 
urally be fertilized by pollen produced on plants from the 
same ear. All this corn would be discarded and seed saved 
only from the detasseled rows. 

155. Inbreeding. One of the difficulties encountered in 
this plan is the inbreeding which is likely to be brought about 
by this close selection of corn.. This may be overcome by 
continuing the ear-to-row tests year after year. This plan 
calls for four separate plats or fields of corn each year. The 
first plat is devoted to the ear-to-row test. The second plat 
where the best ears, as shown by the ear-to-row test of the 
previous year, are mated, is called the breeding plat. The 
third is termed the multiplication plat, which may be of any 
size desired. Here the seed produced from the breeding 
plat of the year before is planted to obtain enough seed for 
field use. The fourth plat is the regular field of corn, the 
seed for which comes from the multiplication plat. 

For the ear-to-row test which is conducted each year, 
some of the best ears are taken from the general field, some 
from the multiplication plat, and some from the breeding 
plat. When it is thought that new blood must be brought 
in from outside, selected ears of the variety with which one 
is working may be obtained from other farms or other 
breeders. By running all these ears together in the ear- 
to-row test and then selecting and mating together the high- 



118 FIELD CROPS 

yielding ears each year, new blood can constantly be brought 
in from ears of known yielding power. This plan will quite 
probably be adopted eventually by all corn breeders. 

156. TheNeedfor SpecialBreeders. Too much time and 
too much careful work are involved in the scientific breed- 
ing of corn to make it practical for each farmer to attempt 
the work. Probably the average farmer will not care to go 
further in breeding work than to have a special seed corn 
plat, and not attempt to produce pedigreed seed corn, or 
even to conduct an ear-to-row test. Then, in every corn- 
growing community there will be room for a corn breeder. 
When this breeder has demonstrated that he has corn of 
superior quality especially adapted to the locality, he will 
have little difficulty in selling it at a price which will 
make it profitable for him to breed corn as a business. If 
he produces corn of high quality, it will be profitable for 
farmers in the community to buy seed of him. 

157. The Farmer's Seed Com Plat. Every corn grower 
can well afford to give some time and thought to the care and 
handling of a seed corn plat. The size of this plat will 
depend upon the acreage of corn grown. The object should 
be to have the plat large enough to produce sufficient seed 
of excellent quality to meet his requirements. If the seed 
corn plat is to be one acre in size, the proper method is to 
select the necessary number of ears, which is about twenty, 
to plant this plat, using extra care to select absolutely the 
best ears that can be obtained. After the ears are selected 
and tested, the plat is planted in the same way as the ordi- 
nary field; in fact, it is preferably a part of the regular corn 
field. If possible, it should be on either the south or the west 
side of the field, or on the side toward the prevailing winds, 
so that the pollen from the main portion will be less likely 
to fertilize the stalks in this seed plat. Care must be taken, 
however, that the plat is not near a neighbor's corn field, 
because the neighbor may not have as carefully selected corn 



JUDGING CORN 119 

as that grown on the plat. It is better to have the seed corn 
plat near the middle of the main field than to have it near a 
neighbor's corn of a different variety or of inferior quality. 
A seed corn plat planted in this way may be cultivated with 
the rest of the field, so that very little extra work is entailed. 
The best seed is planted on this plat and extra care is 
taken while it is growing that all weak and barren stalks 
are removed or detasseled, so that all ears produced on it 
•will be fertilized from strong stalks that bear ears of corn. 
When the time comes to select seed, all the best corn produced 
in the seed plat is selected. The following spring the twenty 
best ears are selected and planted in another seed corn plat 
and the balance is used for the seed of the main crop. On a 
small plat of this kind, one can afford to use more care in 
selecting seed and in weeding out or detasseling the weak 
stalks than is practical on the large fields. 

JUDGING CORN 

158. Object of Judging. The judging of corn is not 
nearly so difficult as it at first seems. When one first looks 
at an exhibit of corn containing a large number of samples, 
it appears to be almost an impossible task to pick out the 
best lots. The chief object in the improvement of corn 
is to get a variety that will yield the largest possible quantity 
of food products to the acre. The work of the judge is 
simply to pick out the sample that, in his judgement, will 
produce the best crop of corn if planted the following season. 

159. The Use of the Score Card. To become familiar 
with the important points in an ear or other sample of corn 
one should make a careful study of a score card. There are 
many different score cards in use. Nearly every state 
agricultural college has a score card for corn, each differing 
from those used by the other colleges. The difference is 
due to the fact that some points seem to be of more value 
in some sections of the country than in others. 



120 FIELD CROP 8 

SCORE CARD FOR CORN 

(From liuiiana Circular 18.) 

Standard 
Salient Points Score 

Uniforiiiity of Exhibit 10 

Sliape of Ears 10 

Leuist li of lOars 10 

C\)lor of Grain and Cob 10 

Tips of lOars -^ 

Butts of Ears 5 

Koniol : 

a Shape. 10 

b Indentation 5 

e rnifonnity 10 

Seed Condition 15 

Proportion of Grain to Cob 10 

Total 100 

SPECIAL TYPE OF SCORE CARD FOR CORN 

USED BY THE EXTENSION DIVISION, IOWA STATE COLLEGE 

Points 
I. Will It Vi.-Ul? . . '25 

That it*, will it yioUl woll; has it oonatitution; oan wo tlopond 
on it ovt>n when conditions an* unfavorablo? 
II. Will It Ki^n>n? . 25 

That IS, will it nmture; will it ripen every year; is it. safe for 
the looality? 

III. Does It Show Improvement? 25 

That is. has it breeding; has it a distinct type; will it repro- 
viuce itself; has it several years of careful selection and 
in\{)roven»ent back of it? 

IV. Will It C]row? . . 25 

That is. has it vitality; will it Kernunate; will it all grow and 
grow uniformly, givins strong;. vi<;ori>us plants? 

1(K) 

The object of the score card is simply to call the judge's 
or the student's attention to the various points of importance 
in the sample under consideration so that no point w ill be 
overlooked. The relative values given these different points 
are not so important as the fact that thay all are considered 
and that all the corn in each class is judged on the same 
basis. There are very few judges of experience who use the 
score card. They have trained themselves until they are 
able to observe and weigh the relative merits of the different 
points of each sample of corn presented to them. 

160. Placing Samples. When attempting to judge a 
large number of samples of corn on exhibition, the first step 



LAIiOUATOJiV AND FIJJLI) EXhUiCIHEH 121 

is to eliminate all the poorer samples from the class which 
is under conside^ration. As a rule, a large number of samples 
are easily rul(;d out, for there may Ijo mixed kernels, soft 
ears, poor ears, or other disqualifying factors which are 
easily noticcKl. The second st(;p is to get the remaining good 
samples together, where they may Ije easily compared. The 
third step is to place at one end of the exhilnt table or bench 
the sample that seems best; then place the other samples as 
their merit seems to warrant. When one feels that they are 
placed in the proper order, or nearly so, a few kernels should 
be removed from each ear in each sample and placed at the 
end of the ear from which they were taken. It is easy then 
to compare the kernels to see whether or not they are good 
in shape, true to type, and uniform. Comparison of kernels 
is always necessary when the competition is close. 

LAliORATORY AND FIELD EXERCISES 

1. Select from a large number of ears in the field, in the crib, or in 
th(! s(;(;(l-hou.s(;, 10 (;ar.s of corn as nearly alike as possible in the follow- 
ing rei^MJCts: Cobs the same length, size, color and shape; tips and butts 
well filled; rows of .kernels straight; the same number of rows on each 
cob; kernels of the same d(;i)th, shape and color, with uniformly large 
genns, and broad, well-filled tips. Note the large number of cars neces- 
sary to obtain the ten-ear sample, also the great tendency to vary. 

2. Test 1(X) ears for germination by the individual ear method as 
described in this chapter. Make a note of the materials and time used 
to make the tester, put the 100 ears to test, and read the results. How 
much more corn must one obtain at 50 cents per bushel to pay for the 
time and materials used in making the test? Do you think it pays to 
test corn? How many acres will 100 ears of corn plant in check rows 
3 feet 8 inches apart each way, and 3 kernels dropped per hill? 

3. Make a seed-corn tree as described in this chapter. Note cost 
of materials and time required. How much did it cost you? How 
many ears of corn will a tree 6 feet high and with 8 rows of nails hold? 
How many such seed-corn trees would you need to store enough seed 
corn for your own use? Hang up some seed corn by the double string. 

4. When the corn is ripe in your neighborhood, go into a field, 
select an average row, and count the number of stalks in 100 hills that 
have produced ears. (Count as hills each place where there should 



122 FIELD CROPS 

have been a hill, whether any stalks are there or not.) Husk the corn 
and weigh it. Secure also the yield from the best hill and from the 
poorest. At what rate does the corn yield to the acre? How much 
would it have yielded had there been a perfect stand of 3 bearing stalks 
per hill? How much corn would have been produced to the acre had 
there been a perfect stand and every hill yielded as much as the best hill? 
5. Secure two samples of corn, one graded, the other, ungraded, and 
a ho^se corn-planter. Block up the planter until the wheels turn free. 
Put in some of the ungraded seed, and run the planter until 100 hills 
have been dropped. Count the kernels dropped for each hill, and find 
the number of hills in 100 for which just three kernels were dropped. 
This will give the percentage of a perfect drop. Repeat the process, 
using the graded seed and changing the plates until the most perfect 
drop possible is secured. It may be necessary to file the holes in the 
planter plates to the right size, but it is better to secure new plates. 

REFERENCES 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Bailey. 

Corn, Bowman and Crossley. 

Corn Crops, Montgomery. 

The Book of Corn, Myrick. 

Cereals in America, Hunt. 

Corn Plants and How They Grow, Sargent. 

Manual of Corn Judging, Shamel. 

The Study of Corn, Shoesmith. 

Field Crop Production, Livingston. 

Productive Farm Crops, Montgomery. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

303. Corn Harvesting Machinery. 

313. Harvesting and Storing Corn. 

409. School Lessons in Corn. 

414. Corn Cultivation. 

415. Seed Corn. 

537. How to Grow an Acre of Corn. 

546. How to Manage a Corn Crop in Kentucky and West Virginia. 

559. Use of Corn, Kaffir, and Cowpeas in the Home. 

565. Cornmeal as a Food and Ways of Using It. 

578. The Handling and Feeding of Silage. 

704.. Grain Farming in the Corn Belt. 

729. Corn Culture in the Southeastern States, 

773. Corn Growing for Droughty Conditions. 

948. The Ragdoll Seed Tester. 



CHAPTER IV 

WHEAT 
DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION 

161. Origin and History. As far back as history goes, 
wheat has been cultivated throughout the civiHzed world. 
On account of its antiquity, it is somewhat difficult to trace 
its origin. It is known to have been grown extensively in 
western Asia, in Europe, and in the northern part of Africa, 
ever since there have been any records of human events, 
and there are evidences which indicate that it was grown in 
China at least 3000 B. C. AVheat is mentioned in the first 
book of the Bible, and its use for bread-making dates back 
many centuries. 

Wheat belongs to the grass family Gramineae and to 
the tribe Hordeae: it is very closely related to barley and 
rye. Some botanists think that it evolved, through a nat- 
ural process, from the wild grass known as Aegilops, com- 
mon in southern Europe. There is apparently no definite 
means of proving this theory, and whether it was developed 
in several countries independently or in one section and 
carried by the earlier tribes to other sections is also unknown. 
The important fact is that we have this valuable plant, 
adapted to a very wide range of soils and climatic conditions, 
giving us a product from which the standard bread of the 
world is made. 

162. Botanical Characters. The wheat plant is a true 
annual, though in some substances it has been changed into 
what is known as a winter annual, being sown in the fall and 
maturing early the following summer. The numerous fibrous 
roots grow in whorls from the lower joints of the stem. 

123 



124 FIELD CROPS 

Most of the roots of the wheat plant are usually found in 
the surface soil, though under favorable conditions they 
have been known to grow to a depth of 7 feet. 

Like most of the grasses, the stems of wheat are jointed 
and hollow, except in the variety known as emmer, in which 
the stems are . more or less pithy. During the early stages of 
growth, the stems are very short, though they very early 
develop the entire number of nodes and internodes. For 
several weeks the plants devote their energies to producing 
roots and leaves and in developing new stems, or stools. 
When a good growth of leaves and roots has been developed, 
the stems shoot up quickly, simply by lengthening the inter- 
nodes. Stooling is accomplished by buds which develop at the 
lower nodes into culms. In this way a large number of stems 
may be produced from one seed, the number being deter- 
mined by the soil and climatic conditions and the thickness 
of planting. The stems vary in height from 20 to 50 inches, 
and in diameter from 3^f e to f/g inch. 

163. The Leaves. As soon as a kernel of wheat germi- 
nates, it sends out leaves and roots to enable the plant to 
live after the supply of food in the seed is exhausted. These 
first leaves come from the lower joints of the stem, and per- 
form their work during the early growth of the plant. As 
the stem grows, the leaves on the upper nodes develop and 
shade the lower leaves so that they wither and disappear. 
The leaves of wheat are alternate, one leaf appearing from 
each joint. The lower part of the leaf, the sheath, clasps 
the stem nearly the entire length of the internode. The 
sheath is split open on the side opposite the leaf blade, and 
at the junction of the sheath and blade is a ligule which 
clasps the stem lightly. The blades are long and tapering; 
they vary from }<i to 5^ inch in width, and from 8 to 15 inches 
in length 

164. The Flowers. The flowers of wheat are arranged in 
a compact terminal spike. The spike is made up of a num- 



WHEAT FLOWERS 



125 



ber of small spikelets, with two or more flowers in each 
spikelet. These spikelets are arranged alternately on the 
spike on either side of a central stem, or rachis. Each indi- 
vidual flower, or floret, is composed of a branched stigma, 
three anthers, and one outer and one inner flowering glume, 
commonly called the chaff. At the base of each spiklet are 
two flowerless, or 
empty glumes. 
At the base of and 
between the two 
flowering glumes 
is a small organ 
called the lodi- 
cule, which, when 
the stigma is ready 
to be fertilized, 
absorbs water, 
swells, and forces 
open the glumes. 
Figure 47 shows 
a spiklet and a 
flower of the wheat plant. The color varies from light yel- 
low to black. 

Wheat is almost always close-fertilized; that is, each 
ovary is fertiUzed by the pollen from the same flower. The 
anthers are so arranged that the pollen is deposited on the 
receptive stigma as the anthers are being pushed up out of 
the glumes by the lengthening of the filaments. It is prob- 
ably very rare that any cross-fertilization takes place. On 
this account, wheat varieties are very stable in character, for 
it is much easier to keep close-fertilized plants pure than 
open-fertilized ones like corn and rye. 

The fruit, known as the kernel, at maturity is in the form 
of an oblong berry with a longitudinal crease, or furrow, in 
one side. The kernels naturally vary in size, color, weight, 




Figure 47. — At the left, a wheat flower; at the right, a 
spikelet of wheat in bloom. 



126 



FIELD CROPS 




Figure 48 — Typea of wheat. From left to right, durum, bluestem, and fife. 



SEASON OF GROWTH 127 

and composition with the different varieties of wheat and 
with cUmatic and soil conditions. 

165. Season of Growth. Wheat is grown successfully on 
some of the higher altitudes at the equator, and from there 
all the way to within 200 miles of the Arctic Circle. It does 
best in a temperate climate where the rainfall in not less 
than 20 inches, largely distributed through the growing sea- 
son, and where the seasons are sufficiently long to allow 100 
to 125 days of good growing weather free from frost. Spring 
'wheat matures in from 100 to 125 days from the time of 

planting; winter wheat, in about 100 days from the beginning 
of the growing weather in the spring. 

166. Classification and Varieties. Wheat may be classi- 
fied in many different ways; as winter and spring wheat, as 
hard and soft wheat, as bread and durum, or macaroni, wheat, 
or by the botanical differences in the varieties. Wheat is 
commonly divided into eight classes or types; but as only 
four of these classes are of importance in the United States, 
only these four will be discussed. 

In the first class, Triticum sativum vulgare, is found all 
the common bread wheats, including the hard and soft win- 
ter and the hard spring types. This is by far the most im- 
portant class. The second class is the durum wheats, Trit- 
icum sativum durum. It is distinguished by resistance to 
drought and hardness of the grain. There are many varieties 
of this type, though few are specially adapted to this country. 
The third class is known as club wheat, Triticum sativum 
compactum. The wheats of this type have short, compact 
heads and produce very soft grain. They are commonly 
grown in the Pacific states. The fourth class of wheat, Trit- 
icum sativum decoccum, is known as emmer, and is grown 
only to a limited extent in this country. It is often errone- 
ously called spelt. This differs from common wheat in that the 
hull remains with the kernel when it is thrashed and the 
stems are pithy instead of hollow. When growing, it is very 



128 



FIELD CROPS 




Figure 49. — Kernels of three types of wheat. Two upper rows, hard red spring 
(Preston>; two middle rows, duram (Kubanka); two lower rows, hard red 
winter (Turkey). 



WINTER AND SPRING WHEAT 129 

similar in appearance to common wheat. From an economic 
standpoint, emmer is best compared with barley or oats, as 
it is grown in this country only for feed. It is better adapted 
to dry-land conditions than common wheat, and is of some 
importance where the rainfall is limited. 

Varieties of common wheat are numerous, but varietal 
names, as in other common crops, are very misleading on 
account of the natural variation due to wide distribution. 

167. Winter Wheat. From 60 to 70 per cent of the 
wheat grown in the United States is winter wheat; a large 
proportion of this is of the Turkey variety, which is the 
standard hard winter wheat. The hard winter wheats are 
grown largely in Kansas and Nebraska; the soft winter 
varieties are produced in the states east of the Mississippi 
River. The leading states in the production of winter wheat 
are Kansas, Nebraska, IlHnois, Indiana, Ohio, Missouri, 
Pennsylvania, Oklahoma, and Texas; in these states over 
60 per cent of the winter wheat crop of the United States 
is produced. The principal limitation to the more extensive 
production of winter wheat is winterkilling. 

168. Spring Wheat. Minnesota and North and South 
Dakota produce about 70 per cent of the spring wheat of the 
United States, a very large proportion of which is either of 
the fife or bluestem type. There are several varieties of 
these two types, but in each type the varieties are quite 
similar. These types do not differ materially in composi- 
tion or value. They are both standard hard spring wheats. 
In some sections one kind is preferred, while elsewhere the 
other seems to be more satisfactory. The chief differences 
are in the chaff and the habit of shattering. Bluestem 
wheat has hairy chaff, while the chaff of fife wheat is smooth. 
The bluestem type is a httle more inclined to shatter when 
mature than the fife. The most popular variety of hard 
spring wheat at present is the Marquis, an early variety of 
the fife type. 



130 



FIELD CROPS 



169. Durum Wheat. Durum wheat is grown to some 
extent in the spring wheat belt. It is used for flour-making, 
but its special use is for the production of macaroni. In the 
best spring wheat sections, durum wheat does not yield as 
well or produce grain of as good quality as it does in the 
somewhat drier sections. It seems best adapted to the 
semiarid region, where there is not sufficient moisture to 
produce satisfactory crops of common spring wheat. 

IMPORTANCE OF THE CROP 

170. World Production. The countries leading in the 
production of wheat in 1913, the last year for which accurate 
statistics are available with the acreage and production of 
each according to the Bureau of Crop Estimates of the 
United States Department of Agriculture, are shown in 
Table VI. 

Table VI. Leading countries in the production of wheat, with the 
acreage and production of each in 1914. 



Country 

United States 

European Russia 

France 

British India 

Austria-Hungary 

Italy 

Canada 

Argentina 

Australia 



Acreage 



53,541,000 
62,316,000 
16,049,000 
27,697,000 
12,664,000 
11,783,000 
10,293,000 
16,242,000 
9,453,000 



Bushels 



891,017,000 
597,000,000 
319,677,000 
314,608,000 
190,655,000 
169,442,000 
161,280,000 
113,904,000 
112,159,000 



The figures above given are the latest which are now 
available, as crop production has been greatly disturbed 
since 1914 by the world war. The total world production of 
wheat is normally about 4,000,000,000 bushels, or about the 
same as that of oats and corn. Owing to the higher weight 
per bushel, more pounds of wheat are produced than of either 
corn or oats, while the total cash value of the crop is greater 
than that of corn and oats combined. 



PRODUCTION OF WHEAT 



131 



In the five years from 1910 to 1914 the average annual 
production of wheat in the United States was 728,225,000 
bushels, or about 18.2 per cent of the world crop. During 
the same years, European Russia averaged annually 647,000,- 
000 bushels; British India, 355,000,000 bushels; France, 
310,000,000 bushels; Austria-Hungary, 235,000,000 bushels; 
and Italy, 179,000,000 bushels. 

171. Production in the United States. In the United 
States, wheat ranks third in the number of bushels produced, 
the yield of both corn and oats being much larger, but in the 
weight of the crop wheat ranks second to corn. Wheat 
is likewise second to corn in total value among the 
cereals, but hay and cotton often outclass wheat in this 
respect. For the ten years from 1908 to 1917 an average 
of 49,531,000 acres have been devoted to the production of 
wheat, and the annual production averaged 730,205,000 
bushels, valued at $770,339,000. The average annual acre- 
age, production and value of wheat in the ten states lead- 
ing in production in the ten years are given in Table VII. 



Table VII. Average annual acreage, acre yield, production, and 
farm value of wheat in the ten states of largest production in the 
ten years from 1908 to 1917, inclusive. 



State 


Acreage 


Average 

yield 
per acre 


Production 


Farm value 
December 1 


Kansas 


Acres 

6,336,000 
7,622,000 
4,049,000 
2,941,000 
1,971,000 
3,554,000 
2,143,000 
2,137,000 
1,890,000 
2,174,000 
14,716,000 


Bushels 

13.8 
11.0 
14.0 
17.1 
21.7 
11.4 
15.6 
15.4 
16.4 
13.7 
16.1 


Bushels 

87,839,000 
84,847,000 
56,688,000 
51,108,000 
42,146,000 
40,472,000 
34,504,000 
34,016,000 
31,899,000 
29,906,000 
236,780,000 


Dollars 

89,592,000 
81,279,000 
58,797,000 
48,995,000 
39,370,000 
41,608,000 
37,165,000 
37,883,000 
37,305,000 
31,796,000 
266,549,000 


North Dakota. . . 

Minnesota 

Nebraska 

Washington 

South Dakota . . . 
Illinois 


Indiana 


Ohio 


Missouri 

All others 


United States 


49,531,000 


14.7 


730,205,000 


1770,339,000 



132 



FIELD CROPS 




PRODUCTION OF WHEAT 133 

Table VII and Figure 51 show Kansas, North Dakota, 
Minnesota, Nebraska, and Washington to be the leading 
wheat states. These five states produce 44 per cent of the 
entire wheat crop of the United States. The ten states in- 
cluded in Table VII produce 67 per cent of the entire wheat 

^^^' ^— ^^"^^'^^^"^^^^— ^^™^"^— — ^^1^— 12.03% 
N«I>- ^^'^^" ^^^— ^^^— ^^^M— ^■^—^■^1^ 11.62% 
MINN. i— ^»^— i— ^^MM 6.76% 
NEB. ■^■^ ■^^I^—^— ^— 7.00% 
WASH. I^i— i^^H— — ■ 5.77.7^ 
S. O. 1^— ^^^— — I^M 5.54% 
Hi. ^■^■i^^—B— ll 4.73/0 
IND. ^^^mtm^m^mmm^m 4.66% 

OHIO M^^B^B^l^ ^— 4.37% 

MO. ^^^m^m^i^m^^Km 4.10% 

Figure 51. — The percentage of tlie wheat crop in the United States produced in 
each of the ten states of largest productioti, 1908-1917. 

crop of the United States, which locates the wheat belt in 
the North Central states. 

The importance of the crop in the various states is best 
shown by the proportion of the improved farm acreage which 
is annually devoted to it. Slightly more than one tenth 
(10.3 per cent) of the improved farm acreage of the United 
States was devoted to wheat from 1908 to 1917. A larger 
proportion of the improved farm land was sown to this 
crop in North Dakota than in any other state, as shown by 
KAS. wm^^m^mm^^^^ mmam 21.2% 

N. D. ^^^■^^^■^■i^^B^^H^HHHH^^lM 37.3% 
MINN.HIi^MHHH^HH 20.6% 
NEB. H^H^B^BH 12.1% 
WASH. ^^i^^^M^— — H^— 30.9% 

S. D. ^^^m^ m^^m^^^m^ 22.5% 
ILL. w^^^mm 7.6% 

12.6% 
I 9.89% 
I 8.8% 

Figure 52.— The percentage of improved farm land which is annually planted to 
wneat in the ten states of largest production and in the United States, 1908-1917. 

Figure 52. In Kansas, Minnesota, Washington, and South 
Dakota more than one fifth of the improved farm land was 
devoted to wheat. 




184 FIELD CliOPii 

i72. Acre Yield. The most important wheat-producing 
states are by no moans the states with the highest acre 
yields; in fact the reverse is usually true. Of the ten leading 
wheat-producing states, Washington holds first place on 
the basis of acre yield; Nebraska, second; Ohio, third; Illi- 
nois, fourth; Indiana, fifth; Minnesota, sixth; Kansas, seventh; 
Missouri, eighth; South Dakota, ninth; and North Dakota, 
tenth. The average yield in the United States in the ten 
years from 1008 to 1917 was 14.7 bushels to the acre. Nevada 
has the highest average yield for the same period, 28.6 bushels 
but this is only on 30,000 to 40,000 acres. North Carolina, 
South Carolina, and Georgia have the lowest average yield, 
10.6 bushels. Under favorable conditions, yields of 30 
bushels or more may be obtained in anj^ of the states. The 
average is kept down by poor methods of cultiu'e, insects, dis- 
eases, storms, and unfavorable weather conditions. The 
largest yield per acre of wheat ever recorded, so far as ascer- 
tained b}^ the Bureau of Crop Estimates, is 117.2 bushels, 
produced in 1895 on an IS-acre field in Washington. The 
variety was Australian Club. The field consisted of black 
sandy loam and clay subsoil and had previously been in 
pasture and potatoes. The average value of the wheat crop 
to the acre is not in exact proportion to the yield, for the 
price per bushel varies greatly in different sections, according 
to distance from terminal markets. On account of high 
average yield, the highest average acre value of wheat, as 
shown by statistics is in Nevada. 

SOILS AND FERTILIZERS 

173. Soils. Wheat is adapted to a very wide range of 
soils, and grain of excellent quality is produced on very light 
as well as on ver}^ heavy soils. The type of soil does not seem 
to affect the crop greatly, either in quality or quantity, so 
long as the needed plant food and moisture are available. 
These conditions may be supplied on almost any arable soil, 



HOIIjH and FFJlTILIZNUfi 135 

by good metJioflH of cropping and tilhigci. Ah a rule;, how- 
ever, th(; better th(^ Koil the bcitter the yi(5ld, unless the land is 
HO ri(;h that th(5 crop lodges Ixifon^ it inaturcjs, in which cascj 
grain of i)oor (piality is sure to be j>ro(Ju(!c;d, 

'V\n) Ixist w}i(;.'it s(ictions arci in that portion of the tem- 
perate zon(;s wlu^rc; th(;r(5 is an annual rainfall of from 20 to 40 
inch(;s, distribut(;d (piitci uniformly throughout the growing 
H(;aHon. Wheat, howev(ir, in grown in the Pacific ntaten, 
whriHi inost of tlici rainfall (*om(is during th(; wiriter and v(;ry 
litth; of it (hiring the growing H(;ason ; l>ut soils in this section 
have great wat(;r-holding (;ai)a(;ity, which enables them to 
hold the; moisture till it is needed by the crop. Wheat is 
also grown und(;r irrigation with wory satisfactory results. 

174. Manures and Fertilizers, (jrain is the chief 
product of \\\v, wh(;at crof). It r(;mov(;s from the farm con- 
sid(Mabl(; amounts of nitrogfiii, [)hos[)}iori(; acid, and i)otash. 
Of the mincM-al constituc^nts of wheat the grain contains about 
50 per cc^nt of j)hosi)hori(; anhydride and 33 per C(;nt of 
potash, whil(; in the straw th(;r(5 in only about 3 per cent of 
I)hosphoric anhydrides and L^) jMsr cent of potash. Most of 
th(; soils in tins wh(;at belt have a muc^h larger supply of 
f)otash than of nitrog(;n and j)hos[)horic acid, and as the 
ixjtash is used more larg(;ly in the production of straw, which 
as a rule remains on the farm, nitrogen and phosphorus are 
first depleted. Whcsre live stock is kv,\)i, clover grown, and 
th(; land nuitiured fr(!qu(^ntly, satisfacttory yifslds of wlieat 
may be; obtained on natuially fc^rtih; soils for generations 
without th(j addition of f;omm(;rcial fcsrtilizers. But whercs 
wheat is the main crop or wluirc; wheat and other exhaustive 
crops are grown and land is scsldom if (iv(!r manured, it ulti- 
mately becomes ruicessary to add to the soil some kind of 
corrurKircial f(irtiliz(u- that will supi)ly thcj needcsd (;l(5m(;nts as 
tluiy b(H;om(; dcificient. ('lovcjr may Ik; grown to add nitro- 
gen, and clover, gnscui manure, and stabk; manure will main- 
tain tlu; sui)[)ly of vegetable matter. Where this practice 



136 FIELD CROPS 

is followed, about the only element that must be supplied by 
means of commercial fertilizer is phosphorus. 

Experiments have shown that during the first half of 
its growth wheat appropriates about 85 per cent of its 
mineral constituents, while during the subsequent period 
of its growth it is developing its starch and cellulose ingredi- 
ents which are taken largely from the air. These facts have 
bearing on the problem of its fei'tilization. 

In the East and South, where the soils have become worn 
by long continued cropping, commercial fertilizers are usually 
applied for each crop. Likewise, in some of the Central 
states the application of commercial fertilizers is becoming 
necessary in many localities to insure profitable yields. 
The kind and amount of fertilizer most profitable to apply 
can be determined only by careful trials in each locality and 
on each type of soil. A very common practice is to apply at 
seeding time from 200 to 300 pounds of fertilizer to the acre, 
containing about 2 per cent available nitrogen, 8 per cent 
available phosphoric acid, and 2 per cent potash. In many 
localities, where a supply of vegetable matter and nitrogen 
is maintained by growing clover and by applying stable 
manure, the application of either raw or treated rock phos- 
phate is sufficient to provide for satisfactory yields. 

GROWING THE CROP 

175. Preparation of the Land. The preparation of the 
land does not differ materially for winter or spring wheat, 
though the crops are seeded at different seasons of the year. 
The main object in the preparation of the soil for wheat is to 
produce a mellow, firm seed bed with sufficient loose soil on 
the surface to check the rapid evaporation of moisture, and to 
provide a hospitable place for the plants to grow. Where 
possible, land is plowed for wheat, though sometimes the crop 
is seeded on disked corn or stubble land. The better practice 
however, is to plow the land. To fit newly plowed land for 



GROWING WHEAT 



137 



winter wheat seeding, it is necessary to harrow the soil at 
once very thoroughly, to pack down the lower part of the fur- 
row slice so that it will not dry out. The object of this 
harrowing is to retain sufficient moisture in the furrow slice 
for germination, which is not done if the soil is left loose and 
lumpy. It is also desirable to harrow and disk the plowing 




Figure 53. — The disk harrow is one of the most effective tools to use in pre- 
paring a good seed bed. Double disking, as shown here, leaves a level 
surface. 

sufficiently to pack the lower part of the furrow slice so that 
the moisture in the subsoil may be brought by capillarity to 
the surface, where the grain is planted and the roots begin 
their growth. 

Early plowing is said to yield from 3 to 10 bushels more 
wheat per acre than late plowing. It also has the advantage 
that it helps to eradicate weeds. 

If spring wheat is to be sown and the land is fall-plowed, 
it is not desirable to harrow it during the fall. If the soil is 
left rough, it is acted on more fully by the elements, is in 
better condition to take up the moisture that falls, holds 
snow better, and is more easily prepared in the spring than 



138 FIELD CROPS 

if it is harrowed smooth in the fall. In the semiarid rcp;ions 
where the soil must be thoroup;hly cultivated in one season 
and enoup;h moisture stored in it to j2;row a crop the following 
year, the i)lan just given would not be advisable, for it is 
necessary to harrow after every rain in order to retain the 
moisture which falls. ^ 

To prepare fall-j^lowed land for wheat in the spring, thor- 
ough disking and harrowing are necessary. Spring-plowed 
land is prejiared for spring wheat in the same manner as fall- 
plowed land for winter wheat. 

176. Preparing Seed for Planting. Wheat grown in the 
vicinity, graded to maximum weight and quality, and free 
from foul seed, has been shown by ninnerous exi)eriments to 
be the best that is possible to obtain for the main ci-op. On 
many farms, a great many weed seeds and seeds of grain of 
inferior quality are sown with the seed wheat. It is not rea- 
sonable to expect better grain in the harvested crop than is 
sown. Wheat grown continuously in one community is 
often said to run out, and frequently the practice of chang- 
ing seed grain every few years is followed. This is not the 
best practice, for it has been shown beyond any question of 
doubt that if the home-grown grain is carefully graded each 
year and the best used for seed, it will not run out, but may 
be gradually improved. 

On the general farm, there is not sufficient time to permit 
the careful breeding and selection of grain as practiced by 
careful plant breeders; but it is entirely practical to select 
a small proportion of the best grain by running a quantity 
of it through a conmion fanning mill, and in this way to 
select the heaviest and ]^lum])est kernels. 

177. Fanning Mill Selection. Fanning mills separate 
grain by size and shape of kernel, and by weight of kernel. 
In some makes of mills one of these methods is emplo5^ed, 
and in others both are used. The mill which separates by 
only one of these means cannot do as satisfactory work as 



NEW VARIETIES OF WHEAT 



139 




^t/(Sr, 



Figure 



one in which both are used. With a mill using both methods, 
the heavy and light kernels of wheat can. be separated; 
the heavy kernels can then be run over a screen of 
the proper size so that the smaller ones will be taken out 
and only the larger ones left for seed. In this comparatively 
easy way the very best seed grain can be obtained. 

It is known that in a herd 
of cattle some individuals are 
superior to others. It is as 
reasonable to expect that in a 
large number of wheat plants 
or wheat kernels the same 
variation will be found. 
Careful observation of a 
handful of wheat will con- 
vince one of this fact. It is 
probable that in the field 
where thousands of individual 
kernels are sown, some of 
them will be better adapted 

to the soil and other conditions than others. Those best 
adapted will naturally make the most perfect growth, and will 
accordingly produce the most perfect kernels. If the most 
perfect kernels are graded out by means of a fanning mill, as 
suggested, then seed from the individual plants best adapted 
to the field and climatic conditions is obtained. Thus one 
may easily and rapidly grade seed and maintain it at a high 
standard, or even improve it. 

Seed wheat, cleaned and graded as just suggested and 
then treated for smut (Section 196, c), is good seed to sow. 

178. Obtaining New Varieties. It is often desirable to 
obtain new and improved varieties of grain. The main part 
of the crop, however, should be sown with seed graded from 
home-grown stock, and any new and promising variety 
tried in a small way for at least two years, in comparison 



54. — Diagram of fanning mill, 
Hhowing a method of grading seed grain. 
The wind blast from the fan at the right 
blowa the chaff and light grain out at the 
left; the heavier grain falls on screen 3, 
through which the smaller kernels fall, 
leaving the large, heavy kernels for seed. 



140 FIELD CROPS 

with such carefully graded seed. Unless the new variety 
proves superior to the old one under the conditions of the 
farm, it of course will be better not to change. 

179. Sowing. Better results are usually obtained by 
sowing wheat with the drill than by sowing broadcast. 
The drill covers all the kernels, as can not be done with a 
broadcast seeder, and all kernels are placed at a uniform 
depth. If judgment is used in running the drill, the seed is 
sown just deep enough to insure sufficient moisture for germi- 
nation, and not so deep as to make it difficult for the plants 
to get through the surface soil. When grain is sown broad- 
cast a portion is left on top, where under ordinary conditions 
it will not grow, and where it is readily picked up by birds. 
Drilling also insures a more uniform distribution of the seed, 
and requires less of it. 

The amount of seed to sow depends on the variety, its 
size and germinating power, the method of sowing, soil, and 
climate. A fair average throughout the United States is 
about 5 pecks per acre. The amount "varies from as little 
as 2 pecks in parts of California to 8 or 9 pecks in Ohio. 
About 6 pecks are sown in the spring wheat regions. In 
general, the heavy clay soils require more and the lighter 
and warmer soils, with the dry-farming sections, less. It 
is always safer to sow plentifully, and yet it has been found 
that the yield is not always in proportion to the amount 
which is sown. 

180. Time of Sowing. The time of sowing winter wheat 
varies with the locality. It is desirable to sow it early 
enough so that considerable root growth can be made before 
winter. In the northern wheat regions, winter wheat is 
usually sown in September. Farther south, it may be 
sown much later. Spring wheat, as a rule, does best when 
sown early in the season. Wheat will germinate at a com- 
paratively low temperature, and a crop of wheat is very sel- 
dom injured by cold or freezing weather. On this account 



HARROWING WHEAT 



141 



the general practice is to sow wheat as early in the spring as 
a good seed bed can be prepared. When wheat is sown early, 
the cool weather of spring causes the development of a heavy 
root system and induces stooling; while, if it is seeded late, 
the stems shoot up so quickly that there is little chance for 
stooling. Other reasons for early seeding are to avoid as 




Figure 55. — Plowing, seeding, and harrowing at one operation. A common 
method of sowing wheat on the large wheat farms of the Western states. 

much as possible the ravages of diseases and insects and to 
avoid the damage of storms, which are usually more severe 
in the latter part of the growing season. 

181. Harrowing. Harrowing grain after it is up is not a 
common practice, though it sometimes gives very good 
results. Spring wheat is sometimes harrowed after it is up, 
especially if there is a tendency for a crust to form on top of 
the soil. Harrowing breaks up this crust by forming a slight 
dust mulch, which aids in checking the evaporation of mois- 
ture and also aids in destroying weeds. Some of the grain is 
injured by this practice, which fact no doubt is the reason 
why the practice is so uncommon. Drilled wheat only 
should be harrowed and the harrow should be run in the 
direction of the drill rows and not across them. Of course 
the grain should be well rotted before it is harrowed. 



142 



FIELD CROPS 
HARVESTING AND THRESHING 



182. Harvesting. With the exception of a considerable 
acreage in the Pacific states, wheat is harvested as soon as 
it is ripe, to avoid loss by crinkling and shattering and from 
storms. East of the Great Plains grain is usually cut with 
the binder and handled in the bundle. Headers (machines 




Figure 56. — Cutting wheat with binders on a North Dakota farm. Note the 
rape in the wheat stubble in the foreground. After harvest, sheep are 
turned into "the field to pasture on the rape and the gleanings. 



that cut off the heads of the standing wheat and elevate 
them into wagon boxes driven alongside) are used in the 
western Great Plains area and to some extent west of the 
Rocky Mountains. In the Pacific states, where there is no 
rain for several weeks during the harvest season, the grain 
is allowed to become thoroughly ripe and dry and is then 
harvested with a combined harvester and thresher, or ''com- 
bine" (Figure 59). Such machines cannot be used east of 
the Great Plains area, on account of the unfavorable weather. 
183. Shocking Wheat. One of the qualities desired in 
good milling wheat is bright color. If wheat is exposed 



SHOCKING WHEAT 



143 



to rain and dew after it is ripe, it loses this desirable bright- 
ness. On this account it is the usual practice to shock 
wheat as soon as it is cut and to cap the shocks so that a 
large portion of the heads will be protected from the weather 
and thus retain the bright color of the kernels. 

There are two 
types of shocks well 
adapted to the pro- 
tection of wheat. 
The one known as 
the 9-bundle round 
shock is made by set- 
ting up a pair of bun- 
dles and then setting 
another pair so that 
they lean against 
opposite sides of the 
first two. This will 
make a 4-bundle 
shock, one bundle at 
each corner. The 

next four bundles are set against the first four, just filling 
the open spaces between the bundles. The whole is then 
capped with one bundle which is spread out at both the 
top and butt ends to cover as much of the shock as possible. 
Care must be exercized in placing the cap bundle that the 
butt end does not extend out over the side of the shock so 
that the wind can get under the bundle and blow it off. It 
is not so likely to blow a bundle off the head end, because 
the heads are heavy enough so that when the shock is set- 
tled they will lie down against the shock. 

The other type of shock is known as the 12-bundle 
shock. This is made by setting three pairs of bundles in a 
row against one another, usually setting the long way of 
the shock north and south; then the two open spaces on each 




Figure 57. — A well-built wheat shock which will 
withstand storms and in which the grain is well 
protected from weathering. 



144 FIELD CROPS 

side of the shock are filled by placing two bundles against 
each side. Two bundles are used for the cap. These bun- 
dles are laid lengthwise of the shock, and care is taken so 
that the butts of the bundles do not extend out over. the 
shock. This is a very good form of shock for any kind of 
grain. Figure 57 shows a well-built shock. It is worth 
while to build shocks in the best way possible. 




Figure 68. — Stacks of wheat awaiting the threshing machine. A better quality of grain 
is usually obtained from stacking than from threshing from the shock. 

184. Stacking. Much of the wheat grown in the United 
States is stacked before it is threshed. A stack is usually 
made by starting a round shock and continuing to lean 
bundles against it until a bottom of the desired size is made. 
The stack is then built up by laying the bundles horizontally 
in tiers beginning from the outside, the inner tiers lapping 
over the next outer tier, thus holding the stack together. 
A grain stack is usually built up quite level for the lower 6 
to 10 feet. Each outer tier of bundles is extended out over 
the stack a few inches so that the stack is larger in circum- 
ference at a height of from 4 to 8 feet than it is on the ground. 
This projection is called "the bulge." The bulge permits 
the outer edge of the stack to settle more than the center, 
which gives a slant to all outer bundles so that they may 
shed water. When the stack has been laid out to the size 



THRESHING WHEAT 



14; 



and height desired, the middle is then filled quite full, by 
putting in additional courses of bundles, so as to give a good 
slant to all the outside bundles. Each succeeding outside 
tier is then drawn in from 4 to 6 inches farther than the tier 
next under it. In this way the stack grows gradually smaller 
as it gets higher, until it is finally finished in a nicely rounded 



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Figure 59. — Combined harvester and thresher drawn by traction engine. 

peak. The top bundles are usually held in place by pushing 
a stick 8 or 10 feet long, sharpened at both ends, down into 
the center of the stack. Sometimes an inverted bundle, with 
the band near the butt, is put down over the sharp stick, 
as the final cap of the stack. In some cases the peak is 
covered with a forkful of hay. Care must be taken not to 
make the top of the stack too steep, as it may be blown off. 
185. Threshing. Wheat may be threshed from the 
shock or stack as desired. Threshing from the shock is 
cheaper, and is desirable if one can get the threshing machine 
at the proper time so the work can be done as soon as the 
grain is in fit condition. On farms of moderate size, where 
the threshing is hired, it is seldom possible to get the machine 
just when desired. The difference in cost is not suffic'ent to 
warrant taking chances of injury to the grain by bad weather, 
and it is better to stack wheat as soon as it is dry enough 
after cutting than to take chances by waiting for a machine. 

10— • 



146 



FIELD CROPS 



When wheat is stacked, it goes through what is called a 
sweating process; that is, it warms up slightly, becomes 
moist, and the straw gets tough and remains so for two to 




Figure 60. — An elevator where wheat is stored and from which it ia loaded into 
boats for shipment. 

three weeks. Wheat is believed to have a slightly better 
color if allowed to go through this sweating process in the 
stack. On this account many persons prefer to stack their 
wheat before it is threshed. 

186. Storing. Wheat may be satisfactorily stored in any 
bin or room that will protect it from rain, if it is dry when 
stored. If wheat is threshed soon after it is cut, it will 
sweat in the bin, and in that condition it is not safe to put 
large quantities of the grain in one place, for it is likely to 



MARKETING WHEAT 147 

heat and be injured in quality. After grain has been stacked 
for three or four weeks, it has then gone through this ''sweat," 
and may be safely stored in large bins. 

As wheat is a -dry grain, it does not usually lose more 
than 2 or 3 per cent from shrinkage in storage. 

Much grain is sold from the farm soon after it is har- 
vested. This is largely held in elevators. 

An interesting treatment of storage in elevators is found 
in The Book of Wheat. State and Federal ''Acts" should 
be consulted on this subject. 

MARKETING AND MARKET GRADES 

187. Marketing. The usual practice is to market the 
crop soon after it is threshed. Farmers occasionally hold 
their wheat for several months with a view to getting better 
prices, but the practice as a rule does not prove profitable. 
Under the present war conditions (1918), the price of wheat 
for the year's crop is fixed by the President, so that there is 
no inducement to the farmer or any one else to hold it for 
higher prices. There is considerable shrinkage in wheat in 
storage, for it loses some moisture, and there is also some 
mechanical loss due to mice, leakage, etc. Another loss 
from holding is the loss of the earning power of the money 
represented by the value of the wheat. If one is to figure 
on the shrinkage by loss of moisture, the mechanical loss, 
and interest on the money tied up in the wheat, he will lose 
more times by holding than he will gain. 

188. Grades. In accordance with the United States 
Grain Standards Act, the market grades of wheat are fixed by 
the Secretary of Agriculture. The grades effective July 15, 
1918, divide wheat into six classes, hard red spring, durum, 
hard red winter, soft red winter, common white, and white 
club. The hard red spring class is divided into dark north- 
ern spring, northern spring, and red spring subclasses; the 
durum class into amber durum, durum, and red durum sub- 



148 FIELD CROP 8 

classes; the hard red winter class into dark hard, hard, and 
yellow hard winter subclasses; the soft red winter class into 
red winter and red walla subclasses; and the common white 
class into hard white and soft white subclasses. Each of 
these subclasses is then divided into six grades, No. 1, No. 2, 
No. 3, No. 4, No. 5, and Sample. The full descriptions of 
the grades in one class will be sufficient illustration of the 
differences between the various grades. 

Class III. Hard Red Winter, shall include all varieties of hard 
red winter wheat, and may not include more than 10 per cent of other 
wheat or wheats. This class shall be divided into three subclasses as 
follows: 

Dark Hard Winter. This subclass shall include wheat of the 
class Dark Red Winter consisting of 80 per cent or more of dark, hard, 
and vitreous kernels. 

Hard Winter. This subclass shall include wheat of the class 
Hard Red Winter consisting of less than 80 per cent and more than 
25 per cent of dark, hard, and vitreous kernels. 

Yellow Hard Winter. This subclass shall include wheat of the 
class Hard Red Winter consisting of not more than 25 per cent of 
dark, hard, and vitreous kernels. 

No. 1 wheat of each of these subclasses (a) shall be bright, cool, 
and^sweet; (b) shall have a test weight per bushel of at least 60 pounds; 
(c) may contain not more than 13.5 per cent of moisture ; (d) may con- 
tain not more than 1 per cent of foreign material other than dockage, 
which 1" per cent may include not more than one half per cent of mat- 
ter other than cereal grains; (e) may contain not more than 2 per 
cent of damaged kernels, which may include not more than one tenth 
of 1 per cent of heat damaged kernels; and (f) may contain not more 
than 5 per cent of wheat other than hard red winter, which 5 per cent 
may include not more than 2 per cent of common white, white club, 
and durum wheat, either singly or in combination. 

The lower grades of dark hard winter, hard winter, and 
yellow hard winter wheat differ from No. 1 just described in 
having (1) a lower bushel weight, (2) a higher percentage of 
moisture, (3) a higher percentage of foreign material, (4) 
and a higher percentage of damaged kernels. The minimum 
bushel weights for the five grades (Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5) 
are 60, 58, 56, 54, and 51 pounds, respectively. The maxi- 



PRICES AND COST OF WHEAT 149 

mum percentages of moisture allowed are 13.5, 14, 15, 15.5, 
and 15.5, respectively. The percentages of foreign material 
other than dockage are 1, 2, 3, 5, and 7, of which 3^, 1, 2, 
3, and 5 per cent may be matter other than cereal grains. 
Likewise, the allowable percentages of damaged kernels, 
heat damaged kernels, and of other wheats increase rela- 
tively through the different grades. Sample wheat of any 
of these subclasses is wlieat that does not come within the 
requirements of any of the grades, has an objectionable for- 
eign odor, is sour or heating, or is otherwise of low quality. 

The requirements for the different grades in other sub- 
classes are similar to those just given, though the weights 
and percentages for the same grade (No. 1, for instance) in 
the various classes are not necessarily the same. The full 
descriptions of the 84 grades occupy 21 pages in the bulletin 
in which they were originally published. i 

PRICES AND COST 

189. Exports and Imports. The principal countries hav- 
ing a surplus of wheat for export are^ Russia, Argentina, Can- 
ada, the United States, Roumania, and Australia. The 
total exports of wheat flour of the world amounted to 723,000,- 
000 bushels annually for the five years from 1909 to 1913, 
inclusive. Of this amount, Russia exported 155,000,000, 
bushels; Argentina, 93,000,000 bushels; Canada, 86,000,000, 
bushels, and the United States, 84,000,000 bushels, or about 
one eighth of the annual crop. The principal importing 
countries are the United Kingdom, Germany, Belgium, the 
Netherlands, and Italy. The United Kingdom imports 
209,000,000 bushels annually, or about two sevenths of the 
total imports of the world. 

190. Prices. The average farm price of wheat on Decem- 
ber 1 in the United States for the ten years from 1908 to 
1917 is given by the United States Department of Agriculture 

lOfficial Grain Standards of the United States for Wheat. U. S. Dept. Agr., 
Bureau of Markets Service and Regulatory Announcements No. 33. 1918. 



150 FIELD CROPS 

as $1.07 per bushel. The price varied during that period 
from 76 cents in 1912 to $2.01 in 1917. On July 1, 1918, 
as a result of the presidential proclamation and increased 
freight rates, the price at Minneapolis was $2.21 3/2j at 
Chicago, $2.26, and at New York, $2.39i^. The farm price of 
wheat varies considerably in different sections of the United 
States, depending upon the local supply and demand and 
the distance from market. In the North Central states 
west of the Mississippi River, including Minnesota, Iowa, 
Missouri, North and South Dakota, Nebraska and Kansas, 
the 10-year average farm price was between $1.01 and $1.10 
per bushel. This section produces about one half of the 
wheat crop of the United States. In the North Atlantic 
states, which include only about 4 per cent of the wheat acre- 
age of the United States, the average farm price for the same 
period was $1.17 per bushel. In the Far Western states, 
representing about 10 per cent of the wheat area and about 
13 per cent of the total production of the United States, the 
price -was about $1.01 per bushel. 

191. Cost of Production. The cost of producing wheat 
naturally varies with the section of the country, the rental 
value of the land, the price of labor, and the methods em- 
ployed. From reports made by more than five thousand cor- 
respondents of the Bureau of Crop Estimates of the United 
States Department of Agriculture, tabulated in the May, 
1911, Crop Reporter, the average cost of producing an acre 
of wheat in 1909 in the United States was $11.15. Of this 
total, the average amount expended for fertilizers was 58 
cents; preparation of the land, $2.11; seed, $1.42; planting, 
46 cents; harvesting, $1.33; preparing for market (including 
threshing), $1.48; miscellaneous, 47 cents; land rental or in- 
terest on land value, $3.30. As the average yield in that 
year was 17.2 bushels, the cost of production was 66 cents 
a bushel. The average value of wheat was 96 cents a bushel, 
leaving a return of 30 cents a bushel, or $5.33 an acre. While 



COST OF PRODUCING WHEAT 



151 



these figures are merely estimates and are now far too low, 
the large number of reports which are included make them 
of considerable value. A presentation of the acre value, acre 
cost, and value less cost for the different sections, as shown 
in Table VIII, is of interest. 

Table VIII. Acre value, acre cost, and value less cost of production 
of wheat in various sections of the United States in 1909, as 
reported by correspondents of the Bureau of Crop Estimates. 



Section 



Acre value 



Acre cost 



Value les3 
cost 



North Atlantic 

South Atlantic 

South Central 

East North Central. 
West North Central. 

Far Western 

United States 



Dollars 

21.18 
16.83 
14.05 
18.31 
14.96 
22.01 
16.48 



Dollars 

17.05 
13.10 
10.35 
13.41 
9.74 
12.69 
11.15 



Dollars 

4.13 
3.73 
3.70 
4.90 
5.42 
9.32 
5.33 



From Table VIII, it will be seen that the cost of pro- 
duction in the North Atlantic states is particularly high. 
Every item of expense is larger than the average for the entire 
country, but the greatest increase is in fertilizers and cost of 
preparation. The acre value is also high, as both the acre 
yield and the price per bushel are above the average. The 
largest difference between value and cost is in the Far Western 
states, due to the high yield and the moderate cost of pro- 
duction. In the states of largest production. North Dakota, 
Kansas, and Minnesota, the acre cost of production in 1909 
was $8.99, $10.29, and $10 respectively. No accurate figures 
on cost of production have been published recently, but Hke 
all other farm operations the cost of wheat production has 
increased enormously in the past ten years. It is probable 
that acre costs are at least double now (1918) what they 
were in 1909, but acre values have also increased greatly, so 
that the profit from producing wheat is greater than it was 
ten years earlier. 



152 FIELD CROPS 

According to recently published figures/ the average 
cost of cutting an acre of wheat with the binder varies from 
88 cents to $1.17, according to the width of cut of the binder 
used, the lower cost being for the 8-foot cut and the higher 
for the 6-foot. The average cost of cutting with the binder 
is $1.02, and of shocking, 21 cents per acre, making a total 
of $1.23 for harvesting and shocking. To this must be 
added the cost of stacking, about $1.00 to the acre. The 
cost of heading and stacking, in sections where the header 
can be used, ranges from $1.06 to $1.38, according to the 
size of the outfit used. The total cost of cutting and thresh- 
ing wheat with the combined harvester and thresher ranges 
with outfits of various sizes from about $1.50 to $2.25 per 
acre. As the cost of threshing must be added to the har- 
vesting costs given above for the binder and the header, it 
can readily be seen that the combine is the most economical 
machine for harvesting wheat, but its use is of course limited 
by climatic conditions to a comparatively small part of the 
wheat acreage. 

RELATION TO OTHER CROPS 

192. Place in the Rotation. Wheat is one of the best 
crops to use as a nurse crop for grasses and clover, because 
it is sown early, at the time when grass seed starts best, 
and because it does not shade the ground so much as oats 
or barley. On this account, wheat commonly follows corn 
and precedes a hay crop. In the main wheat-producing 
sections, it is very commonly grown year after year on the 
same land, without fertilization. Occasionally such land is 
left without a crop for one year and summer fallowed; 
that is, it is plowed once or twice, usually about midsummer. 
This is a wasteful practice, unless it is followed for the purpose 
of conserving moisture. Otherwise, it is usually discontinued 
as a country develops and some system of crop rotation is 
introduced. 

iDept. of Agr. Bui. 627, Cost of harvesting wheat by different methods. 



USIES OF WHEAT 153 

A very simple rotation is : First year, corn ; second year, 
wheat; third year, clover. Such a rotation is adapted to light 
soils or to building up run-down soils. This is especially 
true if the corn and grass crops are fed to stock and the 
manure returned to the soil. Another common rotation is 
one covering five years: First year, wheat; second year, 
hay; third year, pasture; fourth year, corn; fifth year, oats. 
Such a rotation is suitable where all the land is tillable, where 
the grass crops may be grown, and where diversified farming 
is practiced. In the Southwest, where difficulty is experi- 
enced in getting grass started and where alfalfa is the main 
hay crop, the following rotation is often followed : First year, 
corn; second year, wheat; third year, oats. To add a vege- 
table matter to the soil, cowpeas or soy beans are seeded as 
soon as the grain crops are removed, and plowed under later 
in the fall. In the South, a common rotation is: First year, 
corn and cowpeas; second year, wheat and cowpeas; third 
year, cotton. In the tobacco sections of the South, a rotation 
often followed is: First year, tobacco; second year, wheat; 
third year, clover. 

193. Wheat as a Nurse Crop. In sowing grass seed with 
wheat, it is quite often mixed with the seed grain and sown, 
and in other cases it is sown with a grass seed attachment on 
the drill or seeder. Timothy seed may be sown with winter 
wheat in the fall when the wheat is seeded, but as a rule it is 
much safer to sow clover seed in the spring than in the fall. 
Grass seed may be seeded in the spring on winter wheat 
land, and the land harrowed to cover it, without detriment 
to the crop. 

USES OF WHEAT 

194. As Human Food. The chief use of wheat the world 
over is for flour to be used as human food. It contains more 
gluten than other grains, which, on account of its elastic 
dough, makes it preferable for bread making. There are 



154 



FIELD CROPS 



numerous grades of flour, but only three general kinds; 
namely, white flour, graham flour, and whole-wheat flour. 
White flour is by far the most generally used. Graham flour 
differs from whole-wheat flour only in that it is the whole 
wheat ground and unbolted, while the coarser part of the bran 
is removed from the whole-wheat flour. Contrary to general 
belief, white flour makes more digestible bread than either 
the graham or whole-wheat flour. Durum, or macaroni, 
wheat is manufactured into flour (semolina) for the manu- 
facture of macaroni and other similar products. Bread from 
it is very palatable, but not quite so light or white as from 
ordinary white flour. Shredded whole wheat and cream-of- 
wheat are breakfast foods made from wheat. Whole wheat 
is sometimes cooked thoroughly and eaten as a breakfast 
food. 

195. As Feed for Live Stock. Wheat is usually too 
valuable to feed to stock. Some of the poorer grades and 
wheat screenings are often fed, however, and occasionally 
the prices of live stock and of wheat are such that good 
wheat may be fed profitably. The by-products in the 
manufacture of flour, — namely bran, shorts, middlings, 
and often the poorer grades of flour commonly called red- 
dog, — are very common and valuable feeds for live stock. 
Table X shows the general composition of some of these by- 
products as compared with corn. 

Table IX. Digestible nutrients in pounds to the hundred pounds of 
dry matter of wheat and tlie by-products from flour mills, compared 
with corn. 



Feed 


Protein 


Carbohy- 
drates 


Fat 


Corn 

Wheat 

Bran 

Shorts 


Pounds 

7.8 
8.8 
11.9 
13.0 
16.9 
16.2 


Pounds 
66.8 
67.5 
42.0 
45.7 
53.6 
57.0 


Pounds 

4.3 
1.5 
2.5 
4.5 


Middhngs 


4.1 


Red-dog flour 


3.4 







DISEASES 155 

It will be observed that wheat and all the mill by-products 
are richer in protein than corn, while corn is richer in carbo- 
hydrates than any of the wheat products. 

DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES 

196. Diseases. It is very seldom that a crop of wheat 
is matured without being affected to some extent by some of 
the common diseases to which the crop is subject, as scab, 
rust, and smut. There are other diseases, but so little is 
*known about them that only the three named will be dis- 
cussed here. Disease causes an immense loss to wheat and 
other cereal crops every year, whereas considerable might be 
done to check this loss. 

(a). Scab. Scab is a fungous disease which attacks the 
glumes, or chaff, of the wheat plant. It is not very common, 
but sometimes causes much loss, for shrunken kernels result 
when the wheat plants are affected. Usually only a few 
glumes are affected, and these are identified by pinkish spots 
at the base. There is no known treatment for this disease, 
, except that the stubble be burned, if wheat is to follow a 
crop of wheat affected with scab. 

(b). Rust. Rust occasionally causes immense damage 
to the wheat crop, sometimes ruining the entire crop of a 
great part of the country. It is a fungous disease which is 
almost always present to some extent, and which, when 
conditions are favorable, may spread rapidly and cause the 
straw to become very weak, resulting in shrunken kernels. 
There are two kinds, the leaf rust and the stem rust. The 
former is nearly always present, but the latter is by far the 
more destructive. Stem rust may live over winter on the 
ripened plant, or more commonly in another form on some 
other plant. The spores may germinate and attack the 
wheat at any stage during its growth. No remedy is known 
except the selection of varieties of wheat which are rust 
resistant, though attempts in this direction have not as yet 



156 



FIELD CROPS 




Figure 61. — Common barberry on the left, 
and Japanese on the right. 



met with very promising results. Other helpful measures are 
drainage, the use of early maturing varieties, and the erad- 
ication of weeds. 

A helpful method of prevention of black stem rust is the 
eradication of the common barberry, which is cultivated for 

ornamental purposes and 
which acts as a host by har- 
boring the spring spores of 
this disease. It is estima- 
ted that in the three spring 
wheat states alone the loss 
from black rust amounted 
in 1916 to nearly $180,000, 
000. A single plant or hedge 
in a city may give off spores 
that will travel by means 
of grasses to fields at a dis- 
tance. The common barberry, however, should be distin- 
guished from the Japanese variety which does not harbor 
or propagate the disease. The common barberry is an up- 
right shrub, 4 to 8 feet high, with grey bark, branched thorns, 
leaves with spiny margins, and berries, borne in* clusters hke 
currants. The Japanese is a low, spreading shrub, 2 to 4 
feet high, with reddish brown bark, single thorns, smaller 
leaves with smooth edges, and with only one to three ber- 
ries in a place. A concerted campaign is being carried on 
from Washington and by several states and public safety 
commissions that is destined to remove the plant entirely 
and prevent the great economic losses caused by it. 

(c). Smut. Smut is a fungous disease which attacks 
the wheat crop and causes very heavy loss. The smut plant 
grows within the wheat plant and produces masses of spores 
in the head where the kernels of grain should be produced. 
The whole head is generally attacked, and usually all the 
heads of a plant, which latter fact is a strong indication that 



DISEASES OF WHEAT 



157 



the infection comes from the seed, or enters the plant at a very 
early stage in its growth. There are two kinds of smut 
that attack wheat, the loose smut, which destroys the entire 
glume and kernel, leaving the rachis naked, and the stinking 



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Figure 62. 



-Stinking smut of wheat. Notice in the open grains how the smut 
spores have destroyed the whole interior. 



smut, which simply produces within the apparently healthy 
glumes a smut ball in place of a kernel of wheat. Both these 
smuts are very destructive. 

Stinking smut is controlled by treating the seed before 
sowing. The most simple and practical method is to moisten 
the wheat with a solution made by mixing 1 pint of 40 per 
cent formaldehyde with 45 gallons of water. Wheat may 
be dipped in the solution in baskets or loosely woven sacks. 
It may be run through the solution by means of a smut 
machine, or the solution may be sprinkled over the seed by 
means of a sprinkling can, the wheat being shoveled over 



158 FIELD CROPS 

several times during the process to insure the thorough 
moistening of each kernel. The smut spores are on the out- 
side of the kernels, and all that is required is to bring the 
solution in contact with them. Loose smut is very difficult 
to handle, as the spores get into the open flowers and become 
enclosed within the wheat kernel. The only treatment that 
is effective is the modified hot water treatment, which is ex- 
tremely difficult to apply. The wheat is soaked for four 
hours in cool water, because heat will pass through the kernel 
more quickly when it is wet. It is then soaked for ten min- 
utes in water at 129 degrees Fahrenheit. It is not advisable, 
without a great deal of experience, to treat much seed in this 
way, as the germination of the grain is likely to be lowered or 
destroyed. Treat only enough for a seed plat, and get clean 
seed for the main part of the crop in this way. 

197. Insect Enemies. There are several insects which 
occasionally cause great damage to the wheat crop. Only 
the more important will be discussed. These include the 
Hessian fly, chinch bug, grasshopper, and army worm. 

(a). The Hessian fly resembles the mosquito quite closely. 
It \siys its eggs in the growing wheat. When the maggots 
hatch, they work in the lower part of the stem, weakening it 
and causing the head to fafl over so that it is missed by the 
binder. Fall plowing, rotation, and burning straw, stubble, 
screenings, and litter are all effective methods of checking 
the loss from this insect. 

(b). Chinch bugs often destroy much wheat by sucking the 
sap from the plants. They are blackish in color, with white 
wing covers, and are about one fifth of an inch long. They 
live over winter in the mature form, under rubbish and leaves. 
In the spring the females lay their eggs; a little later, the 
young appear as very small, reddish bugs. The hatching 
period extends over several weeks, and so bugs of all sizes 
may be seen at one time. There are no effective remedies 
against these bugs in wheat, except to burn or otherwise dis- 



METHODS OF IMPROVEMENT 159 

pose of all rubbish in the fall, so that the bugs will have fewer 
places in which they may be able to hibernate. 

(c.) Grasshoppers when abundant, often do great damage 
to wheat. The eggs are laid in the ground during midsum- 
mer, and hatch the following spring. The young hoppers 
have no wings; hence they do not travel about much. When 
full grown they acquire wings and fly readily. The eggs 
are usually laid in pastures, meadows, and in waste land. 
Late fall plowing and rotation of crops are effective in con- 
trolling the hoppers, for many of the eggs are destroyed and 
others are buried so deep as to prevent the young hoppers 
from getting to the surface when hatched. The young hop- 
pers are often destroyed in large numbers, by use of hopper- 
dozers, or by poisoning with arsenite of soda. 

(d.) Army worms sometimes injure the growing crop, 
while grain weevils are destructive to the stored grain, es- 
pecially in the South. These insects and the remedies for 
them have already been discussed (Section 146). 

METHODS OF IMPROVEMENT 

198. Wheat Will Not Mix. Wheat, being close-fertilized, 
is one of the comparatively easy crops to improve, because 
selected plants do not become mixed with undesirable ones, 
as is the case with corn. It is probable that occasionally 
some cross-fertilization occurs, but it is so seldom as to be 
unimportant. If several varieties of wheat are grown in 
one plat, any one plant will produce pure seed regardless of 
the plants surrounding it. This fact enables one to use 
large numbers of individual plants in improvement work. 

199. Breeding by Selection. The most common method 
of improving wheat is by selection. A large number of 
wheat plants grown under perfectly uniform conditions will 
vary greatly in yield and in other respects. Advantage 
should be taken of this fact in breeding by eliminating all 
the poorer plants, and reproducing only those capable of 



160 FIELD CROPS 

giving the best returns. A very common method is to grow 
on uniform land from one thousand to several thousand 
plants of the variety of wheat to be improved. At harvest 
time, twenty-five or fifty of the highest-yielding plants are 
saved, and the seed from each plant kept in a separate 
package. With the seed from each of these selected plants, 
separate plats are planted to test their ability to continue to 
give large yields. This comparative test is continued for 
at least three years; the plant giving the highest average 
yield for three years in the small plat is increased as rapidly 
as possible, to furnish seed for the main crop. 

200. Crossing. As wheat plants are close-fertilized, 
crossing artificially is often practiced. To do this, the 
unopened anthers are removed from the florets and the head 
is covered for a couple of days until the stigmas are ready 
to be fertilized. Ripe pollen is then taken from another head 
and dusted on the stigmas of the head from which the anthers 
are removed. The head is again covered to prevent any 
other pollen from reaching it. On account of the fact that 
wheat is not naturally cross-pollinated, crossing in this way 
causes a great variation in the resulting plants. The crossing 
of two varieties of wheat may bring forth plants similar to 
either parent and many variations from either of the original 
types, as for example, bearded wheats may result from a 
cross between beardless varieties. The object of crossing 
is sometimes to unite desirable characters in two varieties, 
and sometimes to cause a greater variation than is common, 
with a view to having greater opportunity for selection. It 
takes several generations to fix the character of a wheat plant 
produced by crossing. A few desirable varieties of wheat 
have been produced in this way, but by far the greater num- 
ber are the result of straight selection. 

201. Judging Wheat. For the purpose of judging seed 
wheat, the agricultural colleges have devised score cards 
giving varying values to the important points desired. 



SCORE CARD FOR WHEAT 



161 



While these colleges do not all agree as to the relative impor- 
tance of each point, they do agree quite uniformly on the 
important points. Any of these cards will serve the purpose 
of calling attention to the important points that must be 
considered in judging. 

SCORE CARD FOR SEED WHEAT 



SALIENT POINTS 


INTRINSIC POINTS 


Standard Score 


YIELD 
30 Points 


Weight per bushel 

Uniformity 


25 
5 


VARIETY 
CHARACTERS 


Color 

Purity 


3 
10 


15 Points 


Kernel Shape 


2 


VITALITY 
30 Points 


Luster 

Plumpness 

Germ 

Odor 


5 

15 

3 

1 




Weed seed 


10 


MARKET 


Dirt and dust 


3 


CONDITION 


Injured kernels 


2 


25 Points 


Smut, etc 

Condition of bran 


5 
5 


100 Points 


Total 


100 



LABORATORY AND FIELD EXERCISES 

1. Obtain samples of as many kinds of wheat as possible, and learn 
to identify them. Note differences in weight, size and shape of kernel, 
hardness of kernel, and color. 

2. Obtain samples of wheat from several farms; compare weight, 
color, percentage of weed seeds, percentage of dirt, purity of sample 
(that is, is it one pure variety or a mixture?), size and variation of 
kernels, presence or absence of smut. 

3. Obtain an average sample of wheat; weigh out carefully one or 
two ounces; count the kernels, then determine the number in one 
pound, in one bushel. Find how many kernels per square foot there 
would be if 1 ^ bushels were sown evenly on an acre of land. If possi- 
ble, count the number of plants found growing on one square foot in 
a good field of wheat. How do you account for the difference? 

4. Visit several fields of grain just as they are heading out. Find 

a head of wheat that is smutted; pull up the plant on which the smutted 

head is growing, and carefully examine all the heads on the plant, 

even if you must split the stem open to find some of the. heads that 

have not yet appeared. Examine several smutted plants in this way. 

Are all the heads of a plant usually smutted, or are only part of them? 
11 — 



162 FIELD CROPS 

Does not this indicate that the infection came from the seed instead of 
spreading in the field? 

5. Obtain two small samples of wheat. Sprinkle one with water, 
just as you would do if treating for stinking smut as suggested in this 
chapter. After treating the sample, allow it to stand for from ten to 
fifteen hours. Then plant several kernels from both the treated and 
untreated samples in a box of sand. SHghtly moisten the sand as you 
ordinarily would if you wished the wheat to germinate; keep the box 
in a suitable place for wheat to germinate. Note the difference in 
germination between the treated and untreated seed. 

6. Get a sample of wheat affected with stinking smut. Learn 
to identify the smut balls. Does the sample show indications of being 
smutted either by looks or by smell? 

7. Go into a field at harvest time or early in the fall; dig up some 
wheat stubble, also some stubble from a timothy and clover meadow. 
Compare the amount and character of the roots of the three kinds of 
plants. Which crop will leave the most vegetable matter in the soil? 

8. Some time between January 1st and planting time, obtain 
samples of wheat from a niunber of farms. Plant 100 kernels from 
each sample in plate germinators. Compare the strength and per- 
centage of germination. 

REFERENCES 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, Bailey. 

The Small Grains, Carleton. 

The Book of Wheat, Dondlinger. 

Productive Farm Crops, Montgomery. 

Field Crop Production, Livingston. 

Cereals in America, Hunt. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

466. Winter Emmer. 

534. Durum Wheat. 

596. The Culture of Winter Wheat in the Eastern United States. 

616. Winter Wheat Varieties for the Eastern United States. 

678. Growing Hard Spring Wheat. 

680. Varieties of Hard Spring Wheat. 

732. Marquis Wheat. 

835. How to Detect Outbreaks of Insects and Save Grain Crops. 

863. Irrigation of Grain. 

885. Wheat Growing in the Southeastern States. 

895. Growing Winter Wheat in the Great Plains. 

938. Cereal Smuts and the Disinfection of Grain. 



CHAPTER V 
OATS 

HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION. 

202. Origin and History. The oat belongs to the genu 
Avena, one of the numerous subdivisions of the great family 
of grasses, the Gramineae. As nearly as can be determined, 
this plant is a native of central or western Asia and eastern 
Europe, probably within what is now Russia. No mention 
is made of oats in the earlier writings which have been pre- 
served, and there is no evidence that this grain was culti- 
vated until a much later period than wheat and barley, 
though it was known among the Greeks and Romans. It 
is not strange that the ancient peoples, with their crude 
methods of grinding and preparing grains for use as food, first 
cultivated wheat, which threshes free from the hull, and bar- 
ley, with a hull much thinner than that of oats. Oats prob- 
ably were not grown till the need for feed grain for domestic 
animals became a pressing one, and were then used for human 
food only when other grain crops failed. Their hardiness 
and quick maturity brought them into favor in some of the 
northern countries, where they have long been used as food 
for man as well as for hve stock. The early colonists intro- 
duced oats into America, and their cultivation soon became 
common, particularly in the more northerly sections. 

Practically all the cultivated varieties of oats have been 
developed from the form known as Avena saliva, though a 
few, such as the Red Rustproof of the Southern states, 
have probably been derived from Avena sterilis or some 
other wild form native to southern Europe or northern 
Africa. Several species of Avena are now found wild in 

163 



164 FIELD CROPIS 

various parts of the world, and one, the common wild oat, 
Avena fatiia, is a serious weed pest in grain fields in the 
northern United States and in Canada. None of the closely- 
related genera or species is generally cultivated, though vel- 
vet grass {Holciis) and tall oat grass (Arrhenatheruni) are 
occasionally sown with other grasses for meadow and pasture 
purposes. 

203. Botanical Characters. The oat is an annual plant 
with hollow, jointed stems and fibrous roots. The culms 
are from 2 to 5 feet in height, the average being about 33^ 
feet. The number of culms produced from a single seed is 
usually from three to seven, though the height of the plant 
and the number of culms depend very largely on the richness 
of the soil, the thickness of planting, and the season. The 
leaves are numerous, lanceolate, 6 to 12 inches long and J/^ 
to 1}^ inches wide. The base of the leaf, or sheath, clasps 
the culm for practically the entire length of the internode. 

The flowers are borne in panicles, which are more or 
less spreading according to the variety. The panicle con- 
sists of a central stem, or rachis, with from three to five 
whorls of several small branches each arranged at intervals 
along it. It is usually from 9 to 12 inches long, and bears 
from forty to seventy-five spikelets. Each spikelet consists 
of two or more flowers, of which usually but two are fertile. 
In some varieties, only one grain reaches full size, though 
usually two grains develop, the second being smaller than the 
first. Occasionally the third flower in the spikelet produces 
a grain, but this is usually too small to be of value. The 
flowers are enclosed in two thin outer glumes (the chaff), 
while the reproductive organs of each flower are enclosed in 
the flowering glume and palea, which later form the hull. 
The organs of reproduction consist of three stamens with 
thread-like filaments, tipped with large anthers, and a pistil 
with two featherj^ stigmas. The flowers open for only a 
few hours; fertilization generally takes place before they 



CLASSIFICATION OF OATH 



16J 



open. The oat is normally dose-fertilized, though cross- 
fertilization may possiljly occur. 

The seed varies in size, color, and shape according to the 
variety, but is usually two or three limes as long as broad, 
tapering from a 
little above th(; 
base to the tip, 
and is furrowed 
on the inner side. 

9 

The flowering 

glume is often 

provided with a 

short, usually 

twisted awn, 

whi(;h i.s attached 

to the back of the 

glume. This may 

fall off when the 

grain ripens or be 

broken off in 

threshing, or it 

may adhere to the 

threshed grain. 

In the form known 

as |hull-less oats rarely grown in this country except as a 

curiosity, the grain separates readily from the flowering 

glume, and threshes out clean like wheat. 

The weight of the grain in ordinary oats is one third to 
one half the weight of the entire crop, and about two thirds 
of the weight of the grain is kernel and one third hull. Some 
samples run as high as 75 per cent of the kernel, while others 
do not exceed 60 per cent. 

204. Classification of Varieties. The varieties of hulled, 
or common, oats may be divided into two classes, according 
to the arrangement of the branches on the rachis, (the central 




Figuro 03. — Oat Hpikelctn in blosHom. 



166 



FIELD CROPS 



stem of the panicle). If these are all about the same length 
and turned to one side, the variety belongs to the class of 
side, or "horse-mane," oats; if the branches are of different 
lengths and stand out at different angles from the rachis, 

they are of the 
spreading, or 
''sprangled," 
type. The latter 
is much more 
common, where- 
as side oats in- 
clude only a few 
varieties, grown 
generally in the 
more northerly 
sections. As with 
wheat, there are 
winter and 
spring oats, ac- 
cording to their 
adaptability to 
fall seeding. 
Winter oats are 
much less hardy 
than winter 
wheat, and are 
seldom grown in 
this country ex- 
cept in the South- 
ern and Pacific 
states. Oats may be divided according to the color of the 
hull into white, yellow, black (gray or grayish-black) and 
red (reddish-brown) varieties. The oats commonly grown 
in the North are white, though black and yellow varieties are 
sometimes sown; those grown in the South are red or gray in 




Figure 64. — The two types of panicles in oats; spreading 
at the left; side, or "horse-mane," at the right. 



VARIETIES OF OATS 167 

color. Another division may be based on the time of ripening, 
as early, midseason, and late; and still others on the size and 
the shape of the grain. Early oats ripen in 90 to 100 days 
from sowing, and late oats in from 115 to 130 days. 

205. Leading Varieties. The differences in time of ripen- 
ing, shape of grain, and other characteristics are so slight as 



I 


} ' 6\ ^ 


/ ^ 


1 


f/ 


I 


/ 






^ 


f ^ 




I 


^ 1^^^ i 


!• ^ 


■ 


I f . 


t 

( 






i 


"■ ' ' f fi 1 




1L.J1 


^ \ p 


f 


r 




^'rm,-isx':**s^:smi 


t'"" 


^^m^ 









Figure 65. — Four varieties of oats differing in size, shape, and color. On the 
left, an early yellow oat with small, slender grains, Sixty Day; next, a plump, 
large-grained, reddish-brown variety. Red Rustproof; then a small, black 
oat, North Finnish Black; on the right, a medium late, large, white variety, 
Swedish Select. 

to make the classification and identification of varieties ex- 
tremely difficult. New varieties are introduced each year 
by enterprising seedsmen, and old ones are sent out under 
new names, thus adding to the confusion. A few of the more 
prominent varieties of white oats grown in the Northern 
states are Big Four, Silvermine, Clydesdale, Swedish Select, 
and American Banner. White Russian and Tartarian are 
the most common varieties of the side-oat type. Farther 
south, particularly through Nebraska, Iowa, and Illinois, 
a small early yellow oat from southern Russia known as the 



168 FIELD CROPS 

Sixty Day, or Kherson, is coming rapidly into favor, though 
Silvermine and some of the later white oats are popular in 
some sections in these states as well as in those farther east 
and north. In the South the most common varieties are Red 
Rustproof and Winter Turf. The former may be sown 
either in the fall or in the spring, while the latter is sown 
only in the fall. 

IMPORTANCE OF THE CROP 

206. World Production. Oats grow best in a cool, rather 
moist climate, and are most largely produced in the North 
Temperate zone. Among the leading countries in the pro- 
duction of this crop are the United States, European Russia, 
Germany, France, Canada, Austria-Hungary, and the United 
Kingdom. Such northern countries as Sweden and Norway 
also produce large quantities of oats, but they are not im- 
portant factors in the world production on account of their 
comparatively small area. According to the figures of the 
Bureau of Crop Estimates of the United States Department 
of Agriculture, the world production of oats is about 4,500,- 
000,000 bushels annually, or about 500,000,000 bushels more 
than that of corn and wheat. On account of the much 
greater weight of a bushel of either of the other grains, 
the total weight of those crops is considerably more than that 
of oats, and the value is also much greater. 

In the five years from 1910 to 1914, the average annual 
production of oats in the United States was 1,158,000,000 
bushels, or a little less than one fourth of the world produc- 
tion. European Russia averaged 928,000,000 bushels in the 
same period; Germany, 596,000,000 bushels; Canada, 365,- 
000,000 bushels, and France, 309,000,000 bushels. 

207. Production in the United States. In the United 
States, oats rank second to corn in the number of bushels 
of grain produced, but are exceeded in total weight by wheat 
as well as by corn. In value, they rank fifth among our 



IMPORTANCE OF OATS 



169 



field crops, falling below corn, cotton, hay, and wheat. The 
average annual area devoted to the production of oats in 
the United States for the ten years from 1908 to 1917 was 
38,367,000 acres; the average annual yield, 31.2 bushels to 
the acre; average total production, 1,199,226,000 bushels; 
and average farm value on December 1st, $527,770,000. 
The ten leading states in production are shown in Table X. 

Table X. Average annual acreage^ production, and farm value 
and mean acre yield of oats in the ten states of largest production 
for the ten years from 1908 to 1917. 





Area 


Averac;e 

yield per 

acre 


Production 


Farm value 
Dec. 1. 


Iowa 


Acres 

4,936,000 
4,323,000 
3,025,000 
2,246,000 
2,414,000 
1,746,000 
2,228,000 
1,713,000 
1,487,000 
1,626,000 
12,623,000 


Bushels 

35.0 
35.8 
32.0 
35.4 

27.7 
34.6 
25.8 
31.8 
33.0 
27.8 
28.5 


Bushels 

174,228,000 
155,534,000 
96,899,000 
78,887,000 
66,554,000 
60,969,000 
57,333,000 
54,810,000 
49,123,000 
45,502,000 
359,387,000 


Dollars 

68,815,000 


Illinois 


66,667,000 


Minnesota 

Wisconsin 

Nebraska 

Ohio 


37,469,000 
34,2.53,000 
27,340,000 
26,557,000 


North Dakota. . 

Indiana 

Michigan 

South Dakota. . 
All others 


19,847,000 
22,934,000 
21,507,000 
17,365,000 
185,016,000 


TheU. S 


38,367,000 


31.2 


1,199,226,000 


527,770,000 



As shown by Table X . and Figure 66, the leading states 
in the production of oats are Iowa, Illinois, Minnesota, Wis- 
consin, and Nebraska. These five states produce nearly 
half of the entire oat crop of the country, while the first four, 
comprising the central portion of the upper Mississippi 
Valley, produce more than 500,000,000 bushels, or about 
one ninth of the entire production of the world. The per- 
centage of the total crop of the United States which is pro- 
duced by each of the important states is shown graphically 
in Figure 67. 

More than 10 per cent of the total land area of Iowa and 
Illinois is annually devoted to the production of oats, while 



170 FIELD CROPS 

from four to seven per cent of the total areas of Wisconsin, 
Minnesota, Nebraska, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York 
are utilized for this purpose. A more reliable basis for com- 
paring the relative importance of the oat crop in the various 
states is that shown in Figure 67, in which the percentages 
of the total improved farm area annually sown to oats in 
the ten leading states are shown. These percentages are 
based on the annual acreages as shown in Table X and on 
the acreage of improved farm land as shown by the Census 
of 1910. The diagram shows that oats are relatively more 
important in Wisconsin than in any other state, nearly 
one fifth of the improved farm land being sown to this crop. 
The oat crop is sown on nearly one sixth of the improved 
farm land of Iowa, Illinois, and Minnesota, and on one tenth 
or less of that portion of the other six states. About 8 per 
cent of the entire acreage of improved farm land in the United 
States is annually devoted to oats. 

IOWA m^^^^^^^^^^m^mm^m mmmmma^^ mmam 14.7% 
ILLINOIS mmK^^^aamm^^m^^mmm^m^mmmmam^ i3.o% 
MINN. ^^^tam^mmmmt^K^^a^ 8.1% 
WIS. ^^^^^^^mma^mm 6.6% 
NEBR. ^mm^^m^^a^^m 5.5% 

OHIO HIBBH^^^BH^B 5.1% 

N. DAK. ■■m^^^BBBlHi 4.8% 

INDIANA mmam^tmrnm^ 4.6% 

MICH. ^^^^^^^ 4.1% 

s. DAE. ^ma^m^mm 3.8% 

Figure 66. — Graph showing the percentage of the total oat crop in the United 
States produced in the ten states of largest production in the ten years from 
1908 to 1917, inclusive. 

208. Acre Yield. The states which rank highest in acre 
yield are those in which the acreage is comparatively small, 
both because large areas still remain to be developed within 
their borders, and because oats are grown ahnost entirely 
on irrigated land, which comprises only a small proportion 
of the total acreage. The combination of favorable climatic 
conditions, including abundant moisture supplied at the 
right time in their development, makes oats a very produc- 



PRODUCTION OF OATS 171 

tive crop in these states. The average yield to the acre 
for the ten-year period (1908-1917) in Washington was 47.1 
bushels; Utah, 46.0 bushels; Idaho, 43.8 bushels; and Mon- 
tana, 41.7 bushels. In comparison with these figures, the 
average yield for the entire United States was 31.2 bushels 
to the acre, while that of the five states of largest total pro- 
duction ranged from 27.7 to 35.8 bushels. Natui^ally, much 
higher yields than any of these averages indicate are obtained 
in all the states. Returns of from 150 to 200 bushels to 
the acre have been recorded in some of the North Pacific and 

IOWA ^^^m^mmmmmm^amm^mm^m^mm^mmmmm i6.7% 
ILUNOIS i^^^^K^K^^t^^^^^mmm^mmi^a^^^ 15.4% 
MINN. i^mmi^^mmmma^i^atmm^aammmmmmmmmmmm 15.4% 

WIS. ^^^^^ama^mmt^^mK^^mmmm^m^ma^mmtHm^imis.a^o 

NEBR. ^a^mmmmmmmm^^mmi^^mm 9.9% 

OHIO ^mimammmmma^^^^mmm 9.1% 

N. DAK. ^amm^^^^^^am^^mamami^ 10.9% 

INDIANA wma^mam^^^mmm^m^^^m 10.1% 

MICH. |^_|^^_igi,^^^i_m^^^^i_ 11.6% 

S. DAE. wm^ammam^^^^^^^^^^ 10.3% 
u. S. m^^m^^^ammammi^ 8.0% 

Figure 67. — Graph showing the percentage of improved farm land sown to oats in 
each of the ten states of largest production and in the United States during 
the ten years from 1908 to 1917, inclusive. 

Rocky Mountain states, while in the upper Mississippi 
Valley crops of from 50 to 75 bushels to the acre are obtained 
in favorable years. The average, however, is kept down 
by unfavorable seasons, and by the crops grown on poor soil 
and on poorly prepared land. 

THE PRODUCTION OF THE CROP 

209. The Best Soils for Oats. The best soils for oats 
are those which warm up early in the spring, thus aiding 
early seeding and germination, and helping to mature the 
crop before hot weather. As oats draw more heavily on the 
soil moisture than most of the other grain crops, a good oat 
soil is also one that holds moisture well. This combination 
is found in the loams and clay loams; heavy clays are too 



172 FIELD CROPS 

cold, while light sandy soils are too likely to dry out when the 
crop is in the greatest need of moisture. A fairly good crop 
can be produced on almost any reasonably fertile land, how- 
ever, if other conditions are right. Some of the heaviest 
yields are obtained on the muck soils of Washington. 

The oat plant is a comparatively shallow feeder, most of 
its roots being found in the first two feet of soil. For this 
reason, the best crops are produced on fairly fertile soil, 
though on rich land there is always a tendency toward rank 
growth of straw, particularly if the moisture supply is abun- 
dant. This rank growth and abundant moisture invite 
such diseases as rust and mildew, and the weak, soft stems 
are unable to support the weight of the crop, hence lodging 
follows. If lodging takes place early in the season, the grain 
will be light and' Shriveled. Lodging when the grain is 
nearly ripe usually does little damage to the crop, though 
the cost of harvesting may be greatly increased. Lodging 
at this time is more likely to be due to the blowing over of 
the entire plant during a heavy rain storm than to weakness 
of the straw. Attempts are being made to produce oats 
which are resistant to the tendency to lodge, but the most 
effective means of preventing lodging are thorough drainage 
and the use of land that has not been freshly manured. 

210. Manure and Fertilizers. It has just been stated 
that the land should not be too rich for oats. It is best to 
apply barnyard manure to some other crop in the rotation, 
such as corn or grass, allowing the oats to get some of the 
benefit of the residual effect of the manure. When com- 
mercial fertilizers are necessary, those containing phosphorus 
and potassium as the principal elements should be used, 
except on soils which are decidedly lacking in nitrogen. On 
such soils, plowing under a leguminous crop for green manure 
before sowing the oats is frequently of much benefit. This 
is most necessary and can be done to best advantage in the 
South, where oats are sown in the fall. On soils which are 



PREPARING THE LAND 



173 



lacking in potassium, the use of fertilizers containing that 
mineral usually greatly increases the yield, and at the same 
time tends toward the production of stiffer straw. In 
general, where the use of commercial fertilizers is necessary, 
the largest yields are obtained from the application of small 




Figure 68. — A sample of oats as it came from thethreshiug machine; weight, 3U 

pounds to the bushel. 



quantities of a mixture of all three of the important fertihz- 
ing elements, nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus. 

211. Preparing the Land. As early seeding is desirable 
in order to have the crop mature before hot weather, the 
preparation of the seed bed should begin just as soon as 
the land is in condition to work in the spring. A mellow, 
rather loose surface soil with a firm subsoil is best for oats. 
On fields where a cultivated crop was grown the previous 
season, this is most quickly and easily obtained by the use 
of the disk and smoothing harrows. If the soil is natu- 
rally rather loose or if the field had been plowed for the pre- 
ceding crop, such as corn or potato land, just as good yields 
are often obtained by disking without plowing as from any 



174 FIELD CROPS 

other method of preparation. Generally, where it is possible 
to do the work, fall plowing followed by spring disking and 
harrowing will produce the largest yields most economically, 
because soils so prepared are usually in the best shape to 
store up moisture for the use of the crop. Spring plowing 




Figure 69. — Some of the largest and heaviest grains out of the same iot as the 
sample shown in Figure 68. Weight, 39 pounds to the bushel. 

frequently delays seeding, and unless the soil is thoroughly 
packed to firm the lower layers, it is likely to be too loose for 
the best results. 

Where oats follow some other small grain, the land is 
quite generally plowed; but in the corn belt, where oats are 
most largely grown, they are usually sown on the corn land 
without plowing. The common practice is to disk the ground 
thoroughly in the spring, making a mellow seed bed to a 
depth of 3 or 4 inches, fining and smoothing the surface with 
the spike-tooth harrow. In this way, very good results 
may be expected at reasonable cost. In some cases, oats 
are sown broadcast on land that has been neither disked nor 
plowed, the only preparation given being the disking or 



PREPARING OAT SEED 175 

cultivating necessary to cover the seed. This is a cheap 
but a very slovenly method of farming, which, while it may 
occasionally produce good returns, is quite likely to result 
in reduced yields because it does not put the soil in proper 
condition for the germination of the seed or the retention 
of moisture for the growth of the crop. 

212. Preparing the Seed for Planting. It is even more 
important to grade seed oats before sowing than seed wheat, 
for in most years there is a larger proportion of weak, shrunken 
kernels in oats than in wheat. These kernels are slow in 
germinating, or do not grow at all. The plants produced 
from them are small and weak, and never yield so well 
as those from large, plump kernels. Oats very frequently 
contain a considerable proportion of weed seeds, chaff, and 
dirt, all of which tend to reduce the stand by lessening the 
quantity of good seed which is sown. Thorough cleaning 
of the seed with the fanning mill or by some other means is 
advisable, and usually pays well for the necessary time and 
labor. Treating the seed with a solution of formaldehyde 
before sowing will destroy oat smut (Section 237). Details 
of the treatment have already been given (Section 196,c). 

213. Time for Sowing. Oats should be sown as early 
in the spring as the ground can be put in condition, for usually 
the plants are not seriously injured by late frosts, and best 
results are obtained when the crop makes as much growth 
as possible before hot weather. All tests which have been 
made by the experiment stations favor early seeding. The 
exact date of seeding naturally depends on the locality and 
the season. Seeding may be entirely finished during an 
early spring at an earlier date than it can be begun in a back- 
ward one. In general, the best date from Kansas eastward 
is during the latter half of March. In Nebraska, Illinois, 
Iowa, and other states in the same latitude, the first half of 
April is usually the seeding season, though in exceptional 
years seeding may be finished before April 1, or may be 



176 



FIELD CROPS 



delayed until almost May 1. In the Dakotas, Minnesota, 
Wisconsin, and other states along the northern border, the 
usual seeding season is the latter half of April, though it 
may extend well into May or be finished by April 20. Fall- 




Figure 70. — Sowing oats with a broadcast soeder on corn land without previous 
preparation. A careless method of farming. 

sown oats are sown in September in North Carolina, Ten- 
nessee, and Arkansas, and in October farther south. 

214. The rate of seeding varies in different sections as 
well as on different soils and with different varieties. The 
usual rate is from 2 to 3 bushels to the acre, though in some 
sections it is considerably greater, while in the ' 'dry-farming' ' 
region of the West, from 1 to IJ^ bushels is the usual rate. 
In England and Scotland, 6 to 7 bushels to the acre is some- 
times sown; such heavy seeding is almost never practiced 
in this country. Numerous experiments in the upper Mis- 
sissippi Valley show that there is little difference in the yield 
either of grain or straw when from 2 to 3 bushels is sown, 
but that the yield of straw increases while that of grain de- 
creases at rates of less than 2 bushels. Within reasonable 
limits, the number of culms produced from thin seeding will 
be as great as from, thick seeding as thin seeding induces 



SEEDING IMPLEMENTS 177 

abundant tillering, especially in the drier and warmer soils. 

215. Seeding Implements. Oats are now sown with a 
broadcast seeder or with the grain drill. Up to a few years 
ago large acreages of oats and of other grains were sown broad- 
cast by hand and the seed covered with the disk harrow, 
spike-tooth harrow, or cultivator. This practice is still quite 
common in some sections, except that the broadcast seeder 
has been substituted for the old method of scattering the 
seed by hand. Seeding with the grain drill is usually re- 
garded as the most profitable and satisf actorym ethod of sow- 
ing oats, for all the seed is covered to a uniform depth, less 
seed is required, and the yields are usually better. Uniform 
depth of covering is an aid to uniform germination and 
growth; in broadcast seeding, some of the seed may not be 
covered at all, some may be at the best depth, and some may 
be covered too deeply. Less seed is required for sowing with 
the drill, since there is no loss from seed which fails to grow 
on account of too much or too little covering. The yield is 
usually better on account of the more uniform stand and 
growth and the more uniform distribution of the plants. It 
is claimed that drilling produces two to six bushels more 
per acre than broadcasting. 

216. The proper depth to cover the seed depends to some 
extent on the nature of the soil and the climatic conditions. 
Seed should be covered somewhat more deeply in loose, 
sandy soil than in compact clays or clay loams. In semi- 
arid regions where the surface soil is likely to dry out, deeper 
seeding is necessary than where plenty of moisture is avail- 
able. In general, covering to a depth of from 1 to 2 inches 
will give best results. 

217. Harrowing. Harrowing oats after they are up is 
often recommended as a means of saving moisture by break- 
ing the crust and lessening evaporation, and also as a means 
of destroying weeds. Harrowing is most profitable in the 
drier portions of the country, and on drilled oats. Harrow- 

12— 



178 FIELD CR0P8 

ing oats which were sown broadcast destroys a part of the 
plants and thus lessens the stand. Drilled oats should be 
harrowed in the direction of the drill rows and not across 
them. The roller may be used instead of the harrow while 
the plants are small. After the plants are too high to work 
with the harrow, cultivation may be continued for some time 
by using a Ught weeder. One or two cultivations are about 
all that are usually profitable, and in sections where the rain- 
fall is sufficient for the best growth of the crop, even these 
may be an added expense without adequate return. The 
only good then accomplished is the destroying of weeds. 

218. Irrigation. In the Rocky Mountain and Pacific 
states, large acreages of oats are grown under irrigation. 
The depth of water which is applied generally ranges from 
15 to 20 inches; that is, sufficient water to cover the soil to 
this depth if all were applied at the same time. Usually, 
however, the water is put on in two or three applications, 
and is applied so slowly that it soaks into the soil within a 
few hours after the supply is shut off. Water is generally 
supplied about the time heading begins and again when the 
grain is filling, though sometimes the land is irrigated before 
or immediately after seeding. 

HARVESTING THE CROP 

219. Cutting. There is httle or no difference in the 
methods of harvesting oats and those which have already 
been given for harvesting wheat. The crop is usually cut 
with the binder, though occasionally the header is used in 
some of the drier sections. When the straw is very short, 
due to continued dry weather, the crop may be cut with the 
mower, raked into shocks and handled like hay. It may then 
be stacked and threshed the same as grain in bundles, or it 
may be fed in the straw like hay. The only difference is 
that if it is to be fed as hay, the crop should be cut before 
it is fully ripe, as many of the leaves will be lost in handling 



SHOCKING OATS 



179 



if the grain is allowed to mature, and the straw will not be of 
as good quality for feed. Grain which is cut with the mower 
should be handled as little as possible to avoid shattering. 
Oats should not be cut till they have passed the hard dough 
stage, or the yield will be reduced and the grain will be green 
and shrunken. 
The best time to 
cut is just before 
the heads turn 
yellow, as the fill- 
ing of the grain 
will then be com- 
pleted in the shock 
and there will be 
no loss from shat- 
tering. Winter 
oats in the South 
are harvested in 
the latter part of 
May and the first 
half of June. The 
harvesting of 
spring oats is be- 
gun in Texas and the other Southern states in June, and is 
completed in the North about September 1. Oat harvest in 
Illinois and Iowa is in the month of July. 

220. Shocking. Oats cut with the grain binder are usu- 
ally set up to cure in shocks of ten or twelve bundles. As 
with other grains, the bundles should be set firmly on the 
butts and the shocks built well to avoid as much as possible 
the danger of blowing over in storms. Much of the value 
of the crop depends on the way it is shocked, for poor shock- 
ing exposes the grain to the weather and causes it to be 
greatly damaged in color and quality by hard rains. It 
really makes little difference whether the long or the round 




Figure 71. — A good shock of oats. 



180 



FIELD CROPS 



shock is built, if the shock is properly set up and capped. In 
wet weather bundles may be set up and capped later. 

Oats are often put into shocks without capping, but this 
exposes all the grain to the weather, when nearly all could be 
protected by putting a little more time into the operation. 
The cap consists of one or two bundles laid on the top of the 
shock to form a protecting cover. These bundles should be 
firmly placed and so laid that they will protect as large a part 
as possible of the heads of the bundles in the shock. If 

two bundles are 
used in capping, 
the head of one 
should overlap 
the head of the 
other. The long 
shock is to be 
preferred for 
grain that is not 
fully ripe or that 
contains a con- 
siderable pro- 
portion of weeds, because it allows a better circulation of air 
and dries out better than the round shock. 

221. Stacking. It is usually advisable to stack oats, 
though threshing from the shock is a very common practice 
in some sections. If good weather for several weeks after 
harvest could be assured, and a threshing machine could 
always be obtained when desired, there would be little ob- 
jection to the practice of leaving oats in the shock until 
threshing time. Frequently, however, continued rains pre- 
vent threshing and cause much damage to grain which is left 
unstacked. A better quality of grain is almost always ob- 
tained if oats are stacked about ten days or two weeks after 
harvest. Stacking and threshing costs about one cent a 
bushel more than threshing from the shock; the choice 




Figure 72. — A setting of well-built 8tack3 of grain. 



THRESHING OATS 181 

between the two systems depends largely on the season and 
the locality, as well as the circumstances of the time. 

If the grain is stacked, it should be left in the shock to 
cure for a week or ten days, after which it should be hauled 
to a convenient place near the barns for stacking. The 
straw can then be placed where it can be used most advan- 
tageously. The grain should be dry when stacked, as it is 
likely to mold if damp. The bottom of the stack should be 
built of old rails or some similar material to raise it a few 
inches off the ground and prevent the absorption of moisture 
from the soil. The conical stack is preferable to the long 
rick which is sometimes built, for it sheds water rather bet- 
ter. Whatever form is built, the bundles should be so laid 
that all the grain is protected from weathering. 

222. Threshing. If grain is to be threshed from the 
shock, the threshing should be done as soon as possible after 
the bundles are well cured, thus lessening the time in which 
it can be damaged by bad weather. Stacked grain should be 
allowed to stand for at least two weeks before threshing, and 
a longer time is even better. The grain goes through a 
sweating process both in the shock and in the stack, and 
should not be threshed until this is about completed. When 
threshed from the shock, it should be thoroughly dry, or much 
of the grain will not be removed by the thresher. Properly 
stacked grain is ready for threshing within a few hours after 
a rain, or as soon as the exposed portions of the bundles have 
dried off. 

Attention should be given to the threshing machine to 
insure the removal of all the grain from the straw, and to 
see that the grain is thoroughly cleaned of chaff and dirt. 
Threshing machines in good order can do a very thorough 
job in both these respects if properly regulated. The straw 
should be put up in good stacks or run into the barn, for it 
is too valuable to take chances on having it spoiled by poor 
stacking and bad weather. 



182 FIELD CROPS 

223. Storing the Grain. Oats are sometimes hauled 
direct from the threshing machine to the elevator and sold, 
but by far the greater part of the crop is stored to be used on 
the farm or to be sold at some later time. More than two 
thirds of the oats grown in the United States is fed on the 
farms where they are grown. Clean, tight bins are neces- 
sary for the proper storing of this grain. These should be 
placed well above the ground, where there is no possibility 
of the grain's absorbing moisture from the soil. They should 
be separated by a tight partition from the portion of the 
barn where live stock is kept, to prevent the absorption of 
moisture from the stable. The storage bin, however, should 
be located near the place where the grain is to be fed, to 
avoid extra labor in handling. In the Southern and Central 
states, where grain is frequently destroyed by grain weevils 
and moths, storing in tight bins with covers of sheet iron or 
matched lumber is almost necessary in order that the grain 
can be fumigated. Some means of keeping mice and rats 
out of the bins should be provided, if possible. 

MARKETING AND RETURNS 

224. Market Grades. The market grades for oats are 
less strictly adhered to than those for wheat and compara- 
tively Uttle difference is made on the market between clean, 
bright grain and that which contains considerable quantities 
of chaff, dirt, and weed seeds, or is discolored. Usually this 
difference is not enough to pay the farmer for cleaning his 
grain, though it does j ustify him in demanding proper separa- 
tion and cleaning by the threshing machine. The market 
grades of oats depend on color, weight and freedom from 
dirt and discoloration. The commercial grades are Nos. 
1, 2, 3, and 4, in white, mixed, and red, or rustproof, oats. 
In white oats, a special grade known as ''standard" is pro- 
vided, ranking between No. 2 and No. 3. Most of the oats 
sold on the market is of this grade or No. 3. Usually there 



MARKETING AND RETURNS 183 

is a difference of 1 or 2 cents a bushel between any particular 
grade and the one next below of the same color. White 
oats ordinarily sell higher than mixed or red oats. Grades 
are also provided for white and mixed clipped oats. Grain 
which comes under this classification has been run through a 
machine which chps off the long tip of the hull. Chpped 
oats weigh about 3 pounds to the bushel more than undipped 
oats otherwise of the same grade. The legal weight of a 
bushel of oats in most states is 32 pounds; in Canada it is 34 
pounds. The weight of a measured bushel is extremely 
variable, ranging from as low as 20 pounds or less in unfavor- 
able years in the South to 40 pounds or more in Montana, 
Washington, and other Northwestern states. 

225. Exports and Imports. Only about 2 per cent of the 
oat crop is normally exported, and in some years the export 
trade falls to almost nothing. Very small quantities are 
imported. The imports usually consist of grain from Canada 
or northern Europe for seed purposes, though importations 
have been made from Argentina in seasons when there was 
an unusual shortage of milHng oats in this country. 

226. Prices. The price of oats per bushel depends on the 
supply not only of this crop but of other grains, and on the 
local demand. The average price of oats on the farm on 
December 1st for the ten years from 1908 to 1917, for the 
entire United States, was 43.7 cents per bushel, ranging from 
31.9 cents in 1912 to 66.9 cents in 1917. The highest aver- 
age price is to be found in the Pacific and Southern states, 
from 45 to 75 cents a bushel. In New England the price is 
but little lower, while in the upper Mississippi Valley where 
the bulk of the crop is raised, the average price in recent 
years has been around 40 cents. 

The value of an acre of oats depends naturally on the 
yield and the value per bushel. The highest values are 
found in the Rocky Mountain and Pacific states, where high 
yield and high price are combined; but as most of this grain 



184 



FIELD CROPS 




COST OF PRODUCING OATS 185 

is grown under irrigation, the cost of production is also high- 
High values are also prevalent in New England. In the 
South, the high price makes up in part for the low yield, so 
that the acre value is about as high as the average for the 
entire country. The lowest acre values are found in the 
states of largest production, where medium yields are com- 
bined with low price per bushel. The average value per 
acre for the entire United States for the five years from 1913 
to 1917 was about $15.74. The value in the New England, 
Rocky Mountain, and Pacific states in 1918 ranged from $25 
to 138. In Illinois, on account of an unusual combination 
of high yield and high price, the acre value was $33.80, as 
compared with an average of $14. OG for the previous five 
years. 

227. Cost of Production. The most definite figures on 
the cost of producing an acre or a bushel of oats are those 
collected by the Bureau of Statistics and the Minnesota 
Experiment Station. These figures showed a cost of from 
$7 to $10 an acre, or from 23 to 31 cents a bushel in 1909. 
In Illinois, the cost of production of the average crop of 
oats is estimated at 35 cents a bushel. A general investiga- 
tion of this subject was reported by the Bureau of Statistics 
in the Crop Reporter for June, 1911, where estimates of 
some five thousand correspondents in all parts of the country 
on the cost of producing oats in the year 1909 are tabulated. 
The average of all reports showed a cost of $10.91 an acre, 
or 31 cents a bushel. The average farm value of the crop 
that year was placed at $14.08 an acre, or 40 cents a bushel. 
The items included in the cost totals were commercial fer- 
tilizers, preparation of the land, seed, planting, harvesting, 
preparation for marketing, land rental or interest on land 
values, and miscellaneous items of expense. The largest 
single item was rent, averaging $3.78 an acre; then followed 
preparation of the land, $1.88; preparing for market (thresh- 
ing, grading, etc.), $1.51; harvesting, $1.34; and seed, $1.12. 



186 FIELD CROPS 

The average net return from the grain was $3.17 an acre, to 
which should be added the value of the by-products, $1.42, 
making an average total profit of $4.59 an acre. All items 
of cost, particularly labor, are now (1918) much higher than 
in 1909. The value of the crop is also much higher, as shown 
in the preceding paragraphs. 

The cost per bushel in 1909 in the five states of greatest 
production was: in Iowa, 29 cents; Illinois, 30 cents; Wis- 
consin, 31 cents; Minnesota, 28 cents; and Nebraska, 30 
cents. These figures show a margin of from 5 to 11 cents 
net profit when compared with the farm prices for the same 
year. When the value of the by-products is added, the net 
return per acre was $3.34 in Iowa; in Illinois, $3.79; Wisconsin, 
$6.24; Minnesota, $3.93; and Nebraska, $2.09. The 
highest cost of production recorded was for Maine, $20.64 
per acre, with a net return including the value of the by- 
products of $6.52; the lowest cost was for North Dakota, 
$8.71, with a net return of $3.47. The highest net return for 
any state was for New Hampshire, $16.57 an acre, and the 
lowest, for Nebraska, $2.09. 

These figures show that there is ordinarily little profit in 
growing oats where low average yields are obtained, par- 
ticularly when the value of the straw is not taken into con- 
sideration. It is probable that crops of oats of less than 25 
bushels to the acre are usually produced at a loss, though in 
the South the high value per bushel sometimes returns a 
profit from yields of 20 bushels or even less. 

RELATION TO OTHER CROPS 

228. Place in the Rotation. In Iowa, Illinois, and the 
other states of the corn belt, oats usually follow corn. A 
common rotation where winter wheat is not grown in this 
section consists of two crops of corn, followed by a crop of 
oats and one or more crops of grass or clover. In Maine, 
Minnesota, and other states where potatoes are an important 



OATS AS A NURSE CROP 



187 



crop, a common rotation consists of one crop each of po- 
tatoes, oats, and clover. In the South, a good rotation 
which includes winter oats and the two most important 
crops of the Southern states, corn and cotton, is as follows: 
First year, cotton ; second 
year, corn, with cowpeas 
sown in the corn; third 
year, winter oats sown 
after the corn is removed, 
and followed with cow- 
peas to be cut for hay. 
All these rotations in- 
clude a leguminous crop 
to add nitrogen to the soil. 
In the grain-growing sec- 
tions of Minnesota and 
the Dakotas, v/here no 
regular rotation is prac- 
ticed, oats usually follow 
wheat. Better yields are 
obtained where oats fol- 
low wheat than the re- 
verse in a rotation which 
includes both crops; that 
is, that corn, wheat, oats, 
is a better sequence than 
corn, oats, wheat. 

OOQ TTozi ne* f% 1Vrii«>r<A Figure 74. — Oat smut; normal head at the 
ZZy. use as a INUrse left, smutted head on the right. 

Crop. Oats are largely 

used as a nurse crop. The practice of seeding to grass and 
clover with oats is a very common one. While this method 
of attempting to establish a meadow or pasture is so often 
used, it is not always successful. As oats draw heavily on the 
soil moisture and also shade the ground closely, barley and 
wheat, which take less moisture from the soil and make less 




188 FIELD CROPS 

shade, are better nurse crops. Oats start growth early in 
the season, and on account of their dense growth are a 
fairly good crop to clear the land of weeds. Barley is rather 
better, however, since it matures earlier in the season, and is 
cut before many of the weeds have matured their seeds. If 
oats are used as a nurse crop, an early variety should be sown, 
and it should be seeded thinly. 

230. Sowing with Other Grains. A rather common 
practice among some farmers, particularly in Canada and 
in some of the Northern states, is to sow oats with some other 
small grain crop, as barley or wheat. In Canada, the most 
common combination is oats and barley. Experiments 
show that larger yields of grain in total pounds are produced 
from a combination which is about half barley and half oats 
than from either alone. In order to have the two grains 
mature at the same time, a rather late barley and a medium 
early oat are necessary. In Minnesota and some other 
states, wheat and oats are often grown together. While the 
oats and barley grown in mixtures in Canada are usually 
fed together on the farm or sold as feed, on account of the 
difficulty of separating the two grains, mixtures of wheat and 
oats are frequently taken to elevators to be separated, the 
oats being then returned to the farm and the wheat sold. It 
is doubtful whether the increased yield from this combina- 
tion is sufficient to pay for the expense of separation, but 
where all the grain is fed on the farm, the growing together 
of varieties of barley and oats which ripen at the same time 
often increases the profits from these crops.. 

THE USES OF OATS 

231. Feeding to Stock. By far the greater part of the 
oat crop is fed to live stock, principally to horses. Oats 
have long been regarded as the best grain feed for horses, 
and while corn has rather largely replaced them for this pur- 
pose in recent years on account of its larger yield and rela- 



USES OF OATS 189 

lively lower cost, they are still in high favor among horsemen. 
For feeding to other stock, oats are commonly mixed with 
corn, if used at all. They are an excellent grain for dairy cat- 
tle and sheep. The hulls make them objectionable for feed- 
ing to hogs, because the small stomachs of these animals are 
not able to hold enough of this grain to allow them to util- 
ize it to advantage. Ground oats mixed with swill make an 
excellent mash to feed to brood sows, however, and are highly 
recommended by hog raisers. 

In feeding value, oats compare very favorably with wheat, 
in spite of the fact that they contain a much larger pro- 
portion of crude fiber (the hull) . In protein content they are 
slightly lower than wheat but higher than barley or corn, con- 
taining 9.2 pounds to 100 pounds of dry matter. They are 
rather low in carbohydrates, 47.3 pounds in 100, as com- 
pared with 65 to 69 in the other grains; but contain as much 
fat as corn, 4.2 pounds, and more than double the quantity 
found in wheat or barley. Oats are a muscle-building rather 
than a fattening feed, and are more valuable for animals at 
hard work, like horses or dairy cows, than for fattening 
animals, like beef cattle. On account of the mineral matter 
they contain, which is largely utilized by animals in the for- 
mation of bones, as well as the protein, which is the muscle- 
building element, oats are an excellent feed for young and 
growing animals of all kinds. They are largely used by 
poultry raisers, particularly for feeding to flocks which are 
kept for egg production. 

232. Use as Human Food. Oats have been long used 
as food in Scotland, but have only recently come into com- 
mon use in other countries. In Scotland, oats are generally 
used as groats (the hulled grain soaked and eaten raw, or 
cooked in the form of mush or of thin cakes) rather than in 
the form of flakes or rolled oats so common in this country. 
Oatmeal when properly cooked is the best and cheapest of 
the cereal foods. Long cooking is necessary to make diges- 



190 FIELD CROPS 

tible all the protein it contains. Oatmeal and other oat 
products are now (1918) used as a partial substitute for wheat 
flour in bread making. 

233. Oat Straw. The only by-product resulting from 
the production of the oat grain is straw, which is largely used 
for feeding to stock as roughage. Oat straw is higher in 
feeding value and is more readily eaten by stock than the 
straw from any other grain. It is practically equal to corn 
stover (cornstalks with the ears removed) for feeding. It is 
too bulky for feeding to fattening animals or those at hard 
work, except as a small part of the ration, but as a main- 
tenance ration to ''winter over" stock, it is excellent when 
fed with a little good hay or some grain. Straw which is not 
utilized for feed is commonly used as bedding for animals, 
a purpose to which it is well adapted, for it absorbs liquids 
readily and soon decays in the manure. As it is less harsh 
than the straw of other grains and is free from beards, it is to 
be preferred for this purpose. The fertilizing value of a ton 
of straw at present prices is so high, that no one can afford to 
burn it. Where it is not possible to utilize the straw either 
as feed or bedding, it will usually pay to spread it on the land 
and plow it under to add vegetable matter to the soil. 

234. By-Products of Milling. The by-products of the 
oat milling industry are not very important, since they con- 
stitute only a small part of the grain by-products. Quite 
frequently the oat hulls, light oats, and oat dust are ground 
with corn and sold as corn-and-oat feeds. These feeds 
are decidedly variable in their character, depending very 
largely on the proportion of oat hulls they contain, and 
should be carefully examined before a purchase is made. 
Ground corn and oats make an excellent feed, but it should 
not contain an unusually large percentage of oat hulls, show- 
ing the addition of this refuse to the whole grain. 

235. Oats for Hay and Pasture. If oats are cut before 
the grain matures, while the leaves are still green and the 



INSECTS AND DISEASES 191 

straw is soft, hay of excellent quality can be made. Field 
peas are frequently sown with oats when the crop is to be 
cured into hay or is to be cut green for feeding. Peas add to 
the yield as well as to the feeding value of the crop. A com- 
mon rate of seeding is 1 bushel of peas and 1}^ bushels of oats 
to the acre. Oats and peas may also be used as pasture for 
stock of all kinds where permanent pasture is lacking. Hogs 
should not be turned in on this pasture until the peas have 
made considerable growth, as they will quickly destroy the 
young plants. Sheep and hogs will make good use of both 
peas and oats if not turned on the crop until it matures. 

INSECTS AND DISEASES 

236. Insect Enemies. Several of the insects which are 
troublesome in wheat are also destructive to oats, though this 
crop is seldom seriously injured by insect pests. Among the 
more troublesome insects in oats are the army worm, chinch 
bug, green bug, or grain aphis, and the grasshopper. Except 
in years of specially heavy damage, it is usually not profitable 
to attempt to destroy insects in oat fields, for the expense 
of killing them is greater than the damage they do. The 
means of combating chinch bugs which are given under wheat 
(Section 196) are equally applicable for oats and other crops. 
The most destructive insects in stored grains are the Angou- 
mois grain moth and the various grain weevils. Oats, on 
account of the protection given by the hull, are less frequently 
damaged by these insects than wheat, rye, or barley. Placing 
the grain in tight bins and fumigating with carbon bisulphide 
or hydrocyanic acid gas is recommended where these pests 
are common. 

237. Diseases. The most common and destructive dis- 
eases which attack the oat crop are the rusts and smuts. The 
rusts are of two kinds, usually known as the leaf rust and the 
stem rust, from the portions of the plant which they most 
commonly attack. The leaf rust of oats is well known to 



192 FIELD CROPS 

everyone, on account of the abundance of its brick-red spores 
on the leaves and stems at harvest time in years favorable 
to its development. The stem rust of oats is very similar 
to the stem rust of wheat, appearing as black spots or blotches 
on the leaves and stems shortly before the grain ripens. The 
stem rust is rather less common than the leaf rust, but when 
it occurs it injures the crop more seriously. Both these rusts 
are very common in the South, appearing practically every 
year. In the Northern states, where climatic conditions are 
more favorable to the growth of oats, rust injury is decidedly 
less frequent. It is most likely to occur in wet seasons, 
when the growth of the crop is rank. Oats on rich, wet land 
are particularly likely to be infected. The conditions favor- 
able to the development of this disease are soft, rank growth, 
damp, cloudy weather or heavy dews; and land which is par- 
ticularly retentive of moisture. No effective remedies have 
yet been discovered. Some varieties or strains of oats appear 
to be more rust-resistant than others, and plant breeders are 
attempting to develop this quality to a still greater degree. 
As conditions favorable to rust are most likely to occur late 
in the growing season, early varieties often escape rust at- 
tacks which do serious damage to late oats. The best pre- 
ventive measure is to sow early varieties on well-drained land 
which is not too rich, thus avoiding as much as possible the 
danger of too rank growth and the moist conditions so con- 
ducive to the development of rust. 

Oat smut is also of two kinds, the loose and the covered. 
These smuts differ but little in appearance, and their life 
histories are practically the same. The spore enters the 
growing point of the plant about the time of germination, 
and the slender threads of the smut fungus develop in the 
tissues of the plant along with its natural growth. The 
smut reaches its mature form in masses of black, powdery 
dust, or spores, which replace part or all of the oat head. In 
loose smut the chaff as well as the grain itself is replaced by 



IMPROVEMENT OF OATS 193 

the smut masses, while in covered smut the chaff remains 
in its natural state, enclosing the smut spores. Smutted 
heads mature before the healthy ones, and as the straw of 
the diseased plants is usually shorter, the smutted heads are 
not readily seen at harvest time and the actual damage from 
the disease is usually underestimated. It probably averages 
2 or 3 per cent of the crop, or from $6,000,000 to $10,000,000 
annually for the United States. In some fields it may destroy 
as much as half the crop. Fortunatety, both kinds of oat 
smut are easily and cheaply controlled by the use of the 
formaldehyde solution (Section 196, c). This treatment is so 
cheap and so entirely effective that farmers cannot afford to 
neglect it. Seed should be treated at least as often as every 
alternate year, and treatment every year is much safer. 
Even though all the smut on a given farm may be destroyed, 
it is pretty certain that some of the spores will be scattered 
through the threshed grain, having been carried from neigh- 
boring farms in the threshing machine, so that treatment 
every year is the surest way of keeping down this disease. 

IMPROVEMENT OF THE CROP 

238. Opportunities for Improvement. The oat crop has 
received much less attention from plant breeders and farmers 
in America than corn and wheat. Some European breeders 
have devoted their efforts to the improvement of oats and 
have obtained remarkably good results. Some of the best 
varieties of oats now grown in the United States, particularly 
in the northern portion, have been produced by Swedish and 
English plant breeders. Experiment stations are devoting 
considerable attention to oat breeding, and the development 
of high-yielding strains is likely to result. 

Quahties which breeders aim to combine to a greater or 
less extent are increased yield, increased size of individual 
grains, greater weight per bushel, greater proportion of ker- 
nel to hull, earlier maturity, and greater resistance to lodg- 



194 FIELD CROPS 

ing and disease. Most of these factors operate in one way 
or another to increase the total yield. Early maturity is 
particularly desirable in the Southern and Central states, so 
that the grain may ripen before the hot summer weather, 
which is unfavorable to the growth of this crop. An increase 
in the proportion of kernel to hull is specially desired by 
manufacturers of oatmeal and by stock feeders, for the hull 
is of little value to live stock except as it lightens the ration 
by increasing its bulk. 

239. Methods of Improvement. Some improvement in 
the quality and yield of the crop may be obtained by cleaning 
and grading the seed grain, sowing only the heaviest and 
best seed. A considerable increase in yield will be obtained 
if this process is continued from year to year. The best and 
most reliable method for improving oats and developing new 
strains is to make selections of individual plants or heads, 
and to sow the seed from each of these individuals in separate 
rows. The best strains can then be selected and the seed 
threshed and sown at a uniform rate in rows of a given length 
the following year, so as to obtain a relial^le test of their yield- 
ing power. Each strain should be threshed by itself and the 
yield recorded each year, the best strains then being sown on 
a larger scale the succeeding year. In this way, pure strains 
can be developed, either by straight selection or from plants 
produced by hybridization. The production of oat hybrids 
is rather a difficult process and is usually attempted only by 
professional plant breeders. Even the selection and testing 
of pure strains from commercial varieties involves too much 
detail to make it practical for the farmer. 

240. Judging. Some of the agricultural colleges have 
devised score cards for the use of their classes in judging 
oats. While these differ in some minor points, they are usu- 
ally based on the uniformity of the sample, the freedom from 
other grains, weed seeds, and dirt, the odor, the weight per 
bushel, and the percentage of hull to kernel. In some cases 



SCORE CARD FOR OATS 195 

the germination is taken into account. A good example of 
score cards of this kind is the one used by the College of 
Agriculture of the University of Wisconsin. 

SCORE CARD FOR OATS 

Trueness to type or breed characteristics 5 points 

Uniformity in size and shape of kernels 10 points 

Color of grain 5 points 

Freedom from mixture with other grains 5 points 

Size of kernel 10 points 

Per cent and nature of weed seed, dirt, and other 

foreign material 15 points 

Odor — musty, smutty, sulphur 15 points 

Weight per bushel 10 points 

Percentage of meat to hull 10 points 

Viability 15 points 

Total 100 points 

LABORATORY AND FIELD EXERCISES 

1. If material is available either from the field or from stored 
samples, write a complete description of the mature oat plant. 

2. Each student should bring in a sample of threshed oats and care- 
fully weigh out a portion of it. Then separate the whole grains from 
the weed seeds, chaff, and broken grains, and weigh each lot and figure 
the percentage of good seed. Now divide the whole grain into large 
and small kernels and figure the percentage of large, strong grains which 
the sample contains. 

3. Take samples of the large and small grains and make a germi- 
nation test. Study the differences in the growth of the two sets of 
plants carefully. It might be well also to grow small plats from large 
and small kernels on the experimental grounds, making careful note of 
any differences in vigor of growth. 

4. Make up solutions of formaldehyde, mixing it with water in the 
proportions of 1 to 400, and 1 to 200. Figure how many gallons of water 
would be used to 1 pound (a pint) of formaldehyde at each of these 
rates. Treat small lots of seed for smut in each of the following ways: 

(1.) No treatment. 

(2.) Soak 15 minutes in the 1 to 400 solution. 

(3.) Soak 15 minutes in the 1 to 200 solution. 

(4.) Soak 30 minutes in the 1 to 400 solution. 

(5.) Soak 30 minutes in the 1 to 200 solution. 

(6.) Sprinkle till thoroughly wet with the 1 to 400 solution. 

(7.) Sprinkle till thoroughly wet with the 1 to 200 solution. 



196 FIELT) CROPS 

In the soaking treatments, the seed should be stirred sufficiently so that 
it is all thoroughly wet. After it has been soaked the required time, it 
should be drained and dried. The seed which is sprinkled should be 
covered with a heavy cloth over night and dried the following day. 
A germination test should then be made of each sample. Some of them 
will probably show some injury from the treatment. If the seed is 
known to be infected with smut to some extent, it will be interesting to 
grow small lots from the different samples on the experimental grounds 
and determine the effectiveness of the different treatments. 

5. Plant/ lots of oat grains in a box or in the open ground, covering 
them, 1 2, 3, and 4 inches deep. Determine the percentage of germi- 
nation at each of the different depths. 

6. Let each student bring a sample of oats from home and score it 
according to the score card (Section 240) or, if preferred, the card used 
in your state agricultural college. Write the reasons for the markings 
given. If several samples can be scored by each student, so much the 
better. Check up each score carefully. 

REFERENCES 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, Bailey. 

Farm Crops, Burkett. 

Cereals in America, Hunt. 

Field Crop Production, Livingston. 

Productive Farm Crops, Montgomery. 

The Small Grains, Carleton. 

Southern Field Crops, Duggar. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

436. Winter Oats for the South. 

892. Spring Oat Production. 

938. Cereal Smuts and the Disinfection of Seed Grain. 



CHAPTER VI 
BARLEY 

HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION 

241. Origin and History. Barley belongs to the division 
of the grass family known as the Genus hordeum. It is 
among the oldest of cultivated plants, for it is mentioned in 
some of the earlier books of the Bible, and carvings on the 
ancient Egyptian tombs show heads of this grain. It was 
probably cultivated at as early a date as wheat, and much 
earher than either oats or rye. As with many of our other 
cultivated plants, the exact place of origin and the original 
species are not now known. A wild form known as Hordeum 
spontaneum, which grows in Asia Minor, is regarded by some 
botanists as the original type, and it is very probable that 
the cultivation of this grain was begun in some portion of 
western Asia. The most common closely related species 
in this country is the wild barley or squirreltail grass, 
Hordeum jubatum, one of the worst weeds in meadows and 
pastures in the Northwestern prairie states. Barley was 
brought to Massuchusetts and Virginia by the early colonists, 
and has since been generally cultivated in North America. 

242. Botanical Characters. The cultivated varieties of 
barley are all grouped by botanists under a single species, 
Hordeum sativum. The plant makes a somewhat shorter 
growth than wheat or rye, though otherwise it is quite similar 
to those grains. The number of culms, or stems, which are 
produced varies with the thickness of the stand, but may be 
as high as 15 or 20 where the plants have plenty of room. 
The leaves are broader than those of the other grains, and 

197 



198 FIELD CROPS 

are of a grayish-green color. The head is similar to that of 
wheat, consisting of a spike with spikelets arranged along a 
central stem, or rachis. The spikelets are arranged in groups 
of three alternately at the joints of the rachis, making six 
rows of grain from the top to the bottom of the spike. The 
two-rowed appearance of some varieties of barley is due to 
the fact that only the central one of the three spikelets is 
fertile and produces grain. Many of the varieties are bearded, 
or awned; in some, the beard is replaced by a three-forked 
appendage, or hood. The grain is usually enclosed within 
the flowering glume, or hull, though some varieties thresh 
clean like wheat. It is either whitish or bluish black. 

243. Classification. Varieties of barley may be divided 
into classes along several lines. The first general division 
into two-rowed and six-rowed forms is based on the fertility 
or infertility of the lateral spikelets, as stated in the preceding 
paragraph. Six-rowed barley is of two general forms, the 
round and the square, of which the square type is the more 
common. The former is the type usually known as six- 
rowed, while the square type is often spoken of as four- 
rowed. The four-rowed appearance is due to a twisting of 
the lateral spikelets, so that the grain at the left of one 
group of spikelets is in fine with that on the right of the op- 
posite one, the two rows appearing as one. Two types of 
two-rowed barley are also grown, one with a short, broad 
head and the other with a long, slender one; the latter is the 
common form. Another division may be made on the pres- 
ence or absence of awns, or beards, the classes then being 
known as bearded and hooded, or beardless. Still other 
classes are the common, or hulled, and the naked, or hull-less, 
the division being made according to the manner in which 
the grain threshes from the head. 

As with wheat, there are winter and spring forms. Win- 
ter barley is less hardy than winter wheat, but more so than 
winter oats. The winter varieties usually grown are of the 



CLASSIFICATION OF BARLEY 199 

six-rowed bearded hulled type, though almost any variety 
will survive the winter in the milder portions of the South. 
The cultivation of winter barley is mostly confined to the 




Figure 7o. — Grains of six-rowed (on the left) and two-rowed (on the right) 
barley. The grains in the lateral spikelets of six-rowed barley are com- 
pressed as shown; there should be twice as many of these compressed 
grains as of fully developed ones in a sample of this type. Note that 
there are no compressed grains in the two-rowed barley. 

Southern and Pacific states. Most of the barley sown in 
the spring in the Northern states is of the two-rowed and six- 
rowed bearded hulled types; in the irrigated states in the 
Rocky Mountain region the six-rowed bearded hull-less 
is grown. There are other types, however, which are less 



200 



FIELD CROPS 




Figure 70. — Six-rowed bearded, tv\o-rowed bearded, and six-rowed hooded barley. 



IMPORTANCE OF BARLEY 201 

commonly grown, such as the hull-less six-rowed beardless, 
the hulled six-rowed hooded, the hull-less two-rowed bearded, 
and the hulled two-rowed hooded. 

244. Leading Varieties. The type which is generally 
grown in Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, and the Dakotas, 
the area of largest production, is the common, or hulled six- 
rowed bearded, the most popular varieties being Manchuria 
and Oderbrucker. This type is also grown in New York 
and the other Eastern states. The most common varieties 
in California are the Bay Brewing and the California Feed. 
In the Rocky Mountain region, particularly at high altitudes, 
the hooded hull-less type is most prevalent, though some 
hooded hulled barley is grown. Varietal names in the 
hull-less barleys are largely based on the color of the grain 
as White Hull-less and Black Hull-less. This type of barley 
weighs 60 pounds to the bushel, while the legal weight of a 
bushel of hulled, or common, barley is established at only 
48 pounds in most of the states. 

IMPORTANCE OF THE CROP 

245. World Production. The production of barley, like 
that of wheat and oats, is largely confined to the North 
Temperate zone. The total production of the world is 
about 1,500,000,000 bushels as compared with about 4,000,- 
000,000 bushels each of corn, wheat, and oats. The leading 
countiy in barley production is European Russia, with an 
average annual yield of 452,719,000 bushels for the five years 
from 1910 to 1914. This is nearly one third of the total 
production of the world. Other countries in which the pro- 
duction is large are the United States, with 186,000,000 
bushels annually; Germany, 153,000,000 bushels; Austria- 
Hungary, 148,000,000 bushels; Japan, 94,000,000 bushels; 
Spain, 73,000,000 bushels; Great Britain and Ireland, 64,000,- 
000 bushels; France, 47,000,000 bushels; and Canada, 44,000,- 
000 bushels. 



202 FIELD CROPS 

246. Production in the United States. Barley is ninth 
in value among our field crops, ranking below corn, cotton, 
wheat, hay, oats, potatoes, sugar, and tobacco. It is fourth 
among the cereals, following corn, wheat, and oats, and rank- 
ing above rice and lye. The average area devoted to barley 
in the United States during the ten years from 1908 to 1917 
was 7,605,000 acres. During this period the mean yield 
was 25.1 bushels to the acre; the average annual production 

CALIF, ^^a^^m^m^^^^^^^^^^^^^mmmm^ 19.5% 
MINN, mtmmm^mi^^^^^mmmammmmmm^^ 17.6% 
N. DAK. ^^^mm^^m^^^^^^^mmi I3.l% 
WIS. mmmmmmmi^m^mmmmmm ii.3% 
S. DAK. ^^mmmmam^m^mmmm io.4% 
IOWA ^^^amm^^ 6.0% 

WASH. ^01^^3.5% 
IDAHO tmm 1.9% 

AU Others ^mmmam^^mmmmmmm^mmmmns. 5% 

Figure 77. — Graph showing the percentage of the total barley crop of the United 
States produced in the eight states of largest production in the ten years from 
1908 to 1917, inclusive. 

189,129,000 bushels and the average annual farm value, 
$125,659,000. The leading states in barley production are 
California, Minnesota, North Dakota, Wisconsin, and South 
Dakota. The average annual acreage, production, and value 
of the barley crop in the ten states of largest production, 
for the ten years from 1908 to 1917, are shown in Table XI, 
while the proportion of the total crop of the United States 
produced in the more important states is graphically shown 
in Figure 77. 

As shown by the table and the accompanying diagram, 
the greater portion of the barley crop is produced in Califor- 
nia and in the upper Mississippi Valley. In California, bar- 
ley is most largely grown in the San Joaquin and Sacramento 
valleys. Southern Wisconsin, southern Minnesota, northern 
Iowa, eastern North and South Dakota, and eastern Wash- 
ington are other sections of importance in the production 
of this crop. California produces more than one fifth of 
the barley of the entire country, while Minnesota, Wisconsin, 



PRODUCTION OF BARLEY 



203 



and the Dakotas grow about two thirds of the remainder, or 
more than half of the entire crop. The highest yields to the 
acre are obtained in the Rocky Mountain section and in the 
Pacific Northwest. The average yield in Utah for the ten 
years from 1908. to 1917 was 40.8 bushels; in Idaho, 38.8 

Table XI. The average annual acreage, production, farm value, 
and yield per acre of barley in the ten leading states during the ten 
years from 1908 to 1917, inclusive. 



State 


Acreage 


Yield 
per acre 


Production 


Farm value 
Dec. 1. 


California 

Minnesota 

North Dakota. . 

Wisconsin 

South Dakota . . 

Iowa 

Washington .... 

Idaho 

Kansas 

Oregon 

All others 


Acres 

1,308,000 
1,384,000 
1,281,000 
749,000 
928,000 
418,000 
177,000 
142,000 
283,000 
112,000 
823,000 


Acres 

28.1 
24.0 
19.5 
28.9 
21.7 
27.8 
37.0 
38.8 
17.2 
33.0 
25.2 


Bushels 

36,958,000 

33,272,000 

24,825,000 

21,452,000 

19,729,000 

11,446,000 

6,554,000 

5,448,000 

4,892,000 

3,723,000 

20,790,000 


Dollars 

27,992,000 

20,946,000 

13,688,000 

15,440,000 

11,580,000 

7,429,000 

4,223,000 

3,440,000 

2,968,000 

2,637,000 

15,316,000 


United States . . 


7,605,000 


25.1 


189,129,000 


125,659,000 



bushels; and in Washington, 37.0 bushels. In comparison 
with these figures, the average yield to the acre in Cali- 
fornia was 28.1 bushels; in Minnesota, 24.0 bushels; and in 
Wisconsin, 28.9 bushels. 

m^^^mmmmtm^tm^m^^^^H^ li.5% 



CALL 
MINN. 
N. DAK. 
WIS. 
S. DAK. 
IOWA 
WASHA. 
IDAHO 
U. S. 



■1 7.0% 

6.3% 
I 6.3% 



1.4% 



5.9% 



2.8% 



5.1% 



1.6% 



Figure 78.— Graph showing percentage of improved farm land annually sown to 
barley in the states of largest production and in the United States, 1908-1917. 

Barley occupies a more important position in California 
than in any other state, 11.5 per cent of the improved farm 
land being sown to this crop, as shown in the accompanying 



204 FIELD CROPS 

diagram (Figure 78). It ranks next in importance in Min- 
nesota, occupying about one fourteenth of the improved 
farm area, or nearly half as much land as is annually sown to 
oats in that state. In Wisconsin, the area sown to oats is 
about three times as large as that sown to barley. Only 1.6 
per cent of the entire farm area of the United States is de- 
voted to barley, as compared with 22. 1 per cent to corn, 10.4 
per cent to wheat, and 8.0 per cent to oats. 

THE PRODUCTION OF THE CROP 

247. Soils Adapted to Barley Production. The best soil 
for barley is a well-drained loam. Good drainage and a 
reasonably fertile soil are essential to its successful growth. 
It does not ordinarily do well on heavy clays nor on light, 
sandy lands. It is extensively grown on soils of a volcanic 
origin in the Northwest. Barley grows better on alkali soils 
than any of the other small grains, and is sometimes used 
to reduce the quantity of soluble salts in the soil before sow- 
ing to oats, alfalfa, or some other crop which is less resistant 
to the injurious effects of these salts. 

248. Fertilizers and Manures. The best fertihzer for 
barley is barnyard manure, particularly if this is applied to 
some previous crop or is well-rotted. Barley can be grown 
successfully on richer land than oats, but heavy fertilization 
is likely to cause a rank growth of straw with a tendency to 
lodge. As the roots of this crop do not penetrate as deeply 
as those of oats or wheat, the surface soil should contain an 
abundance of plant food. The yield of barley may be in- 
creased by the use of green manure crops, such as cowpeas, 
field peas, and the like, which add greatly to the vegetable 
matter in the soil, increasing the water-holding capacity 
and the supply of readily available plant food. On poor 
soils where neither barnyard nor green manures are available, 
beneficial results will be obtained from the use of commercial 
fertilizers. The many feeding roots which barley throws 



PREPARATION OF LAND FOR BARLEY 



205 



out near the surface enable it to use commercial fertilizers 
quickly and to good advantage. The proper fertilizers to 
use depend largely on the soil to which they are applied. 
Phosphorus and potash are usually more necessary than 
nitrogen for the highest yields of barley. 




Figure 79. — Barley grains; upper row, six-rowed hulled; center row, two-rowed 
hulled; lower row, hull-lees or naked. 



249. Preparation of the Land. A well-prepared seed bed 
is essential to the best growth of this crop. Fall plowing is 
desirable wherever possible, for fall-plowed land usually 
holds moisture better the following spring and can be put 
in shape for seeding at an earlier date than spring plowing. 
Sowing barley on land that has been disked and not plowed 
is fairly successful when a cultivated crop was grown on the 
land the previous year, but this method is not so generally 
followed as with oats, while the results which are obtained 
are not usually as good. For winter barley, plowing should 



206 FIELD CROPS 

be done some weeks previous to seeding, in order to allow 
the ground to become thoroughly settled. Where winter 
barley follows cowpeas cut for hay, a good seed bed can be 
prepared by disking and harrowing without plowing. The 
essential thing is to have the surface soil fine and mellow 
and the subsoil firm. 

250. Preparing the Seed for Sowing. Thorough grad- 
ing and cleaning of the seed is particularly essential to success 
in barley culture. These precautions are more necessary 
with the six-rowed varieties than with the two-rowed, since 
the lateral grains of the six-rowed are often much smaller than 
the median ones and are not fully developed. Only the 
largest and plumpest seed should be sown, to obtain quick 
germination, strong growth, and an even stand. Evenness 
in ripening is necessary to produce market barley of uniform 
quality, and careful grading is a means toward this end. 
Freedom from weed seeds is also very desirable, for weeds in 
the crop retard its growth, make it more difficult to cure 
property, and injure its market value. 

The formaldehyde treatment recommended for the cov- 
ered smut (bunt) of wheat and for oat smut (Section 196, c) 
is effective in controlling covered smut of barley. Loose 
smut of barley is not killed by formaldehyde, but can be kept 
in check by the hot water treatment decribed for the loose 
smut of wheat (Section 196, c). 

251. Sowing the Seed. Barley is usually sown with the 
grain drill at the rate of from 6 to 8 pecks to the acre. In 
the drier sections, the best quantity to sow may be as low as 
4 pecks. Broadcast seeding usually produces much lower 
yields than drilling, and is not to be recommended where it is 
possible to use the drill. Hull-less barley is sown at the rate 
of from 4 to 6 pecks to the acre. The usual date of seeding 
is slightly later than for oats, varying from the latter part of 
March and the first week of April in Kansas, through the 
second and third weeks of April in Iowa, Nebraska, and 



HARVESTING BARLEY 207 

Illinois, and extending to the last week of April and the first 
half of May in Wisconsin, Minnesota, and the Dakotas. 
Winter barley is usually sown in September or early October. 
The proper depth for seeding varies somewhat with the con- 
dition of the soil, but is about 2 or 3 inches. 

252 Harrowing. Barley, like the other small grams, is 
seldom cultivated in any way. Beneficial results are some- 
times obtained from cultivating drilled barley with the har- 
row or the weeder, running these tools parallel to the drill 
rows This serves to break the crust which is likely to form 
on the surface, lessens evaporation, and helps to keep down 
weeds. Harrowing is especially beneficial in dry seasons or 
in sections of slight rainfall. ^ 

253. Irrigation. A large part of the barley produced in 
the Rocky Mountain states is irrigated. The number of 
irrigations and the depth of water to be applied varies with 
different soils and seasons; but best results are usually ob- 
tained from two irrigations, the first about the time the 
heads begin to show, and the second when the grain is filling. 
The total depth of water applied usually does not exceed 1 
foot, though more may be necessary in sections where the 
rainfall is particularly deficient. 

HARVESTING THE CROP 
254. Cutting and Shocking. As the appearance of the 
grain largely governs the market value of barley, it should 
be carefully harvested and stored. The proper time to cut 
this crop is when the grain is in the hard dough stage. If cut 
earlier, the quality is injured by shrinking, while, if cut later 
part of the crop will be lost from shattering. The usual 
method of cutting is with the binder, though the header and 
the combined harvester are sometimes used in the dry sec- 
tions of the Pacific and Rocky Mountain states. After 
the bundles have dried out somewhat, they should be set up 
in good shocks and carefully capped to protect as much of 



208 FIELD CROPS 

the grain as possible from injury by bad weather. Long 
shocks are somewhat preferable to round ones, as they allow 
better circulation of air. After the grain is cured in the 
shock, in ten days or two weeks after cutting, it should be 
stacked until threshing time. The harvesting of spring- 
sown barley begins in Kansas and other states similarly 
located about July 1, and is general in Wisconsin and Minne- 
sota about August 1. 

255. Threshing. Threshing barley from the shock is a 
risky method, for the grain is very likely to be injured by the 
weather before it is threshed. When grain of the best quality 
is wanted for market, it is advisable to stack and thresh the 
cap bundles separate from the remainder of the crop. The 
discolored grain in these bundles can then be used for feed 
or can be sold by itself without injuring the market value of 
the entire crop. In sections where there is no danger of 
rain during the harvest season, threshing from the shock 
is the common practice. Cracking the grain in the thresher 
should be guarded against, as cracked kernels lower the mar- 
ket value. Special care should be given to the work of 
separation in threshing, so as to remove as much of the dirt 
and weed seeds as possible. 

256. Storing the Grain. Damp, musty bins should be 
avoided in storing barley, for odor and appearance are im- 
portant factors in the market value of the grain. If the grain 
is damp when threshed or becomes damp in the bin, it should 
be shoveled over several times to dry it out. Where there 
is danger of injury from grain moths or other insects, tight 
bins which can be fumigated should be provided. 

MARKETING AND RETURNS 

257. Marketing and Market Grades. A considerable 
part, probably as much as two thirds, of the barley crop goes 
to market. The market grades of this grain are based very 
largely on color, uniformity, appearance, and odor, and on 



BARLEY EXPORTS AND IMPORTS 209 

the strength and uniformity of germination. Material dif- 
ferences in price are made between the grades, and the farmer 
is usually well paid for care in handling the grain from the 
time it is harvested till it is delivered to the elevator. Ac- 
cording to the official classification, the market grades of 
barley are Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4, No. 1 feed, and rejected. No. 
1 barley "shall be sound, plump, bright, clean, and free 
from other grain, not scoured nor chpped, and shall weigh 
not less than 48 pounds to the measured bushel." The 
other grades are relatively lower in quality and weight per 
bushel. On the Pacific Coast there are four special classes, 
with grades of Nos. 1, 2, and 3 in each, based on the variety 
of which the sample is composed, either wholly or in part. 
These are Bay Brewing and Bay Brewing mixed, ChevaUer 
and Chevalier mixed. 

258. Exports and Imports. The average exports of bar- 
ley from the United States for the five years from 1913 to 
1917 were 16,958,000 bushels out of a crop slightly over 
200,000,000 bushels. The exports went to England, Aus- 
traUa, and other countries, for the production of malt and 
for other uses. 

259. Prices and Acre Value. The average farm price of 
barley on December 1 for the entire United States for the ten 
years from 1908 to 1917 was 66.7 cents. In California, the 
state of largest production, it was 76 cents, while in Minnesota 
and North Dakota, which rank next in order of production, 
the average prices per bushel were only 64 and 57 cents, re- 
spectively. The high price in California is due largely to 
the scarcity of other grain, while the lower price in the 
other states mentioned is due to the plentiful supply of 
wheat and oats which is there produced. 

The average valoie of the grain from an acre of barley for 
the five years from 1913 to 1917 was $18.18 for the entire 
United States. For California, $22.95 was the acre value; 
for Minnesota, $17.03; and for North Dakota, $11.17. The 

14— 



210 FIELD CROPS 

highest acre value is that recorded for Nevada, $36.33; and 
the lowest, that for Kansas, $10.56. In general, the higher 
acre values are found in the New England, Rocky Mountain, 
and Pacific states, and the lower in the Central and Southern 
states. 

260. Cost of Production. The reports of about two 
hundred correspondents of the Bureau of Crop Estimates as 
reported in the Crop Reporter f@r October, 1911, show that 
the average cost of producing an acre of barley in 1909 in 
the United States was $10.05, divided as follows: preparing 
ground, $1.84; seed, $1.14; sowing, 46 cents; harvesting, 
$1.28; preparing for market, $1.50; rental value of land, 
$3.17; other items, 66 cents. As the average value of an 
acre of barley that year was $12.15, the crop shows a net 
return of $2.10 an acre for the grain alone. In California, 
the average cost was $10.46, with a value of $16.35; Minne- 
sota, $9.43, value $10.43; and Wisconsin, $12.49, value 
$15.18. The cost of a bushel of grain averaged 36.4 cents for 
the entire United States, 31.7 cents for California, 37.7 cents 
for Minnesota, and 41.6 cents for Wisconsin. As with other 
crops, production costs are now (1918) much higher. 

RELATION TO OTHER CROPS 

261. Place in the Rotation. In the Mississippi Valley 
states, barley occupies about the same place in the rota- 
tion as oats; that is, it usually follows corn and precedes the 
grass crop. As with other grain crops, the heaviest yields are 
usually obtained when barley is grown after corn, potatoes, 
or some other cultivated crop. Excellent results are also 
obtained when it follows a leguminous crop, such as field 
peas in the North and cowpeas in the South. Barley yields 
better after corn than after oats, when these three crops are 
grown in a rotation. 

262. Use as a Nurse and Smother Crop. On account 
of its early maturity and the fact that it draws rather lightly 



USES OF BARLEY 211 

on the soil moisture, barley is an excellent nurse crop to use 
when seeding down to grass or clover. Its early maturity 
also makes it of value in clearing weedy land, since it can be 
cut before many weeds mature their seeds. It is of less value 
as a smother crop than oats, as it makes less shade. 

263. Sowing with Other Grains. As noted elsewhere 
(Section 232), barley and oats are frequently sown together 
for the production of feed grain. The largest yields are ob- 
tained when about 1 bushel of each grain is sown to the acre, 
using a medium late variety of barley and an early variety of 
oats, so that the two grains will ripen together. The yields 
from these grain mixtures, which are quite commonly grown 
in Ontario and other portions of Canada and to a lesser ex- 
tent in the northern United States, are larger than those from 
either crop when sown alone. 

THE USES OF BARLEY 

264. The Manufacture of Malt. About one fourth of the 
barley crop of the United States is normally used in the 
manufacture of malt, which is largely used in the production 
of beer and other malt liquors. Malt is produced by ex- 
tracting the starch from the grain after it has been changed 
in form by the germination process, the grain being placed 
in vats or tanks where it is moistened and heated sufficiently 
to induce rapid germination. Oats, rice, and wheat are also 
used to produce malt, but barley is much preferred by malt- 
sters and is most largely used. Brewing, or malting, barley 
should be clean and bright in color, free from other grains, 
weed seeds, and broken grains, and of high germinating power. 
Broken grains or those which will not germinate are objec- 
tionable, because they mold in the germinating tanks and 
the mold is communicated to the healthy grains. 

265. Feeding to Stock. Barley, either whole or ground 
into meal, is quite largely used for feeding to stock. In the 
Mississippi Valley it is most largely used for feeding to hogs, 



212 FIELD CROPS 

as it produces pork of very high quaUty. It is also useful 
for fattening sheep and for feeding to dairy cows and poultry. 
It is not often fed to horses in this section, but in the Pacific 
states it is a standard feed for this class of animals. The 
feeding value of barley is about the same as that of corn. 

266. Use as Human Food. This grain is normally little 
used as human food in the United States, though in some 
portions of Europe it is commonly made into bread. In 
America, it is principally used as pearl barley for soups and 
as a cereal breakfast food. Pearl barley is the kernel from 
which the hull has been removed. During war conditions 
and the need for conserving wheat, barley flour has been 
extensively used as a wheat substitute. 

267. Use of the By-Products. Barley straw, the by- 
product of grain production, is generally fed to animals or 
used as bedding. As most of the barley which is produced 
in this country is bearded and these beards cannot be sepa- 
rated from the straw, barley straw is less palatable than that 
of oats or beardless wheat. It is also less nutritious than 
wheat straw. As bedding, it is said to be slightly better 
as an absorbent of liquids than oat straw. It is also a little 
higher in fertiUzing value than oat straw. 

The by-products of the malting industiy, malt sprouts 
and brewers' grains, are largely used for stock feed in the 
vicinity of malt houses, either in the wet or the dried state. 
The dried sprouts and brewers' grains are more pleasant 
to handle, and are generally better for feeding. Malt sprouts 
are the sprouts produced during germination, which are 
broken off before the soluble starch compounds are extracted. 
They are high in protein and are a very good feed, par- 
ticularly for dairy cows. Brewers' grains are the barley or 
other grains from which the soluble starch has been ex- 
tracted. Since they contain much of the protein of the 
original grain, they are high in feeding value. Like malt 
sprouts, they are largely fed to dairy cows. Both these feeds 



INSECTS AND DISEASES 213 

can usually be purchased at reasonable prices, and can be 
used with profit where they are readily obtainable. 

268. Barley for Hay and Pasture. Barley is not often 
used as a hay crop except in the West and South. The 
bearded kinds should be cut while the beards are still soft, 
or they will cause injury to the mouths of animals to which 
the hay is fed. The beardless varieties are to be preferred 
for hay production in the region to which they are adapted. 
Beardless barley is now being grown to some extent in the 
South as a hay and pasture crop, though conditions are not 
favorable for the production of grain. Barley hay is high 
in feeding value, and, if cut at the right stage, is relished by 
stock. Winter barley makes excellent pasture for stock of 
all kinds both in the fall and the spring within the region to 
which it is adapted. Spring barley also produces nutritious 
early spring pasture, and is sometimes sown for this purpose, 
particularly for hogs and sheep. 

INSECTS AND DISEASES 

269. Insect Enemies. The insects which are most 
troublesome in growmg barley are the chinch bug, Hessian 
fly, and spring grain aphis. See Sections 196 and 228. 

The most destructive insects in stored barley are the 
grain weevil and the Angoumois grain moth. The most 
effective way of preventing damage from weevils and moths 
is to store the grain in tight bins and fumigate occasionally 
with carbon bisulphide. 

270. Diseases. The most injurious diseases of barley 
are the rusts and smuts. The two kinds of rust and 4:wo 
kinds of smut on barley are quite similar to the correspond- 
ing diseases on wheat. Covered smut may be destroyed 
by treating with the formaldehyde solution and loose smut 
by the hot water treatment (Section 195). These diseases 
are frequently quite destructive, and the annual production 
of barley is materially decreased by loss from smut. 



214 



FIELD CROPS 



Leaf rust and stem rust also do considerable damage, par- 
ticularly in seasons favorable to their development. The 
planting of early maturing varieties which ripen before rust 
ordinarily becomes prevalent, and the use of well-drained 
land for producing this crop are recommended as preven- 
tives of rust injury. Powdery mildew sometimes occurs on 

barley, but it usually 
does little damage. 

IMPROVEMENT OF THE 
CROP 

271. Opportunities 
for Improvement. Barley 
can be improved by in- 
creasing the yield, by in- 
creasing the size and 
plumpness of the indi- 
vidual grains, and in other 
ways. For malting, a low 
protein content and a 
high proportion of starch 
are desired ; while for feed- 
ing a high protein content 
is wanted. It is possible to 
produce strains by selec- 
tion which are relatively 
high or low in protein, 
but this requires much 
careful work and can 
hardly be undertaken ex- 
cept by professional plant 
breeders. 

272. Methods of Improvement. The methods of improv- 
ing barley are not different from those practiced with wheat 
(Section 198) and oats (Section 239). Grading the grain 




Figure 77 — Smutted heads of barley. The 
three upper ones, covered smut; the two 
lower, loose smut. 



IMPROVEMENT OF BARLEY 215 

and sowing only the heaviest and plumpest kernels will 
eventually improve the yield and quality of the crop. The 
selection of good heads from the field, using the seeds from 
them to sow a seed plat from which all plants not of uniform 
type are removed before harvest, and increasing this seed 
until enough is produced to plant the main crop, will mate- 
rially improve the quaUty, yield, and uniformity of the crop. 
New varieties may be produced by the selection of specially 
good individual plants and by hybridization. 

273. Judging. The excellence of a sample of barley is 
determined largely on its uniformity, its freedom from broken 
grains, weed seeds and other foreign matter, its condition, 
and its weight per bushel. Germination is also a factor 
which is usually considered. 

The following score card is used by the College of Agri-. 
culture of the University of Nebraska: 

SCORE CARD FOR BARLEY 

^"^^?:^ot/ 20points 

Texture."/ 20 points 

Size 10 points 

Quality ^ _ • . „ 

Weight per bushel 15 points 

Injury in threshing \^ points 

Sprouted, bin-burnt, decayed, etc 15 points 

Foreign matter 10 p oints 

Total 100 points 

LABORATORY AND FIELD EXERCISES 

1. Have each student make a study of the barley plant and write a 
description of it. If several widely different varieties can be used for 
this work, and their differences and similarities brought out, the value 
of the study will be greatly increased. 

2. Make studies of samples of thrashed barley to determine whether 
they are two-rowed or six-rowed. The six-rowed samples will contain 
approximately twice as many compressed or twisted grains as fully 
developed ones, due to the manner in which the lateral grains in the 
spikelets press against one another (See Figure 71) . Pure samples of two- 



216 FIELD CROPS 

rowed barley will contain none of these compressed grains. Mix 
together lots of two-rowed and six-rowed barley which are similar in 
appearance and let the class determine about what proportion oi each 
was used in the mixture. 

3. IVIake germination tests of samples of barley. If desired, the 
strength of germination of the medium and lateral grains of six-rowed 
barley may be compared. 

4. Examine samples of barley and determine what percentage is 
pure grain and what trash and weed seeds. 

5. Test planting at different depths, noting differences in germi- 
nation and growth. 

6. Devote considerable time to practice in scoring and judging 
samples of barle3\ 

REFERENCES 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, Bailey. 

Farm Crops, Burkett. 

Cereals in America, Hunt. 

Farmers' Cyclopedia of Agriculture, Wilcox and Smith. 

The Small Grains, Carleton. 

Southern Field Crops, Duggar. 

Field Crop Production, Livingston. 

Productive Farm Crops, Montgomery. 

Farmers* Bulletins: 

443. Barley: Growing the Crop. 

518. Winter Barley. 
Department Bulletins: 

622. Identification of Varieties of Barley. 



CHAPTER VII 
RYE 

274. Origin. Rye has been cultivated only in com- 
paratively recent times, for it was not known among the. 
Greeks and Romans. It probably grew originally in western 
Asia and southeastern Europe, as several species of wild rye, 
any one of which may be the parent of the cultivated type, 
are still found there. 

275. Description. Rye is quite closely related to wheat, 
and its manner of growth is much the same. The straw is 
longer and more wiry, and the heads are more slender and 
are always bearded. Unlike wheat and the other small 
grains, rye cross-fertilizes freely, which fact is probably 
the reason why so few distinct varieties have been developed. 
It is a comparatively easy matter to maintain a pure stock 
of wheat, oats, or barley and so to develop in time a new vari- 
ety from any particularly good plant. There is httle danger 
of mixing the varieties of these grains if proper care is used 
in sowing, harvesting, and threshing. Rye, however, may 
become mixed in the field by pollen carried from other plants 
by the wind or by insects, and hence it is quite difficult to 
build up a pure strain. Only a few varieties are recognized 
even by seedsmen, and farmers ordinarily grow simply ''win- 
ter rye" or "spring rye." Most of the rye grown in this 
country is sown in the fall, for winter rye is our hardiest win- 
ter grain and there are few localities where it does not succeed. 

276. Importance of the Crop. The world production of 
rye is greater than that of barley, but less than that of wheat, 
corn, oats or rice. Almost half of the world's crop of 1,747,- 
000,000 bushels is grown in European Russia, and about 
one quarter in Germany. In these two countries and in 

217 



218 



FIELD CROPS 



Sweden and Norway, rye is quite generally ground into flour 
and made into bread. In fact, rye bread is one of the prin- 
cipal articles of diet there, particularly among the poorer 

classes. Other countries 
where large quantities of 
rye are grown are Austria- 
Hungary, with an average 
annual production of 161,- 
000,000 bushels for the 
five years from 1910 to 
1914, and France with 
48,000,000 bushels. The 
average production of the 
United States for this 
period was 37,368,000 
bushels. 

277. Production in the 
United States. Rye is ex- 
ceeded in value by nine of 
our field crops, ranking 
next above flax. The 
average area devoted to 
the production of rye for 
the ten years from 1908 to 
1917 was 2,611,000 acres, 
with a mean yield of 16.1 
bushels to the acre and a 
total average production 
of 41,227,000 bushels, 
valued at $38,879,000. 
Table XII shows the leading states in the production of 
rye, with the 10-year average acreage and production in each. 
Table XII and Figure 82 show that the greatest part of 
the rye crop is produced in a few states, the first five mentioned 
producing over half of the average crop, The remainder of the 




Figure 81. — Typical heads of rye. 



PRODUCTION OF RYE 



219 



production is scattered over a large number of states, mostly 
northern. Beginning in 1915, there has been an enormous 
increase in the production of rye in North and South Dakota, 
particularly the former. Though the average area devoted 
to the crop in North Dakota during the ten years was only 
197,000 acres, in 1917 a total of 1,040,000 acres was harvested. 

Table XII. The average annual acreage, production, farm value, 
and yield per acre of rye in the ten leading states during the ten 
years from 1908 to 1917, inclusive. 



State 


Acreage 


Yield 
per acre 


Production 


Farm value 
Dec. 1 


Wisconsin 

Michigan ...... 

Pennsylvania. . 

Minnesota 

New York 

North Dakota. . 

Nebraska 

Indiana 

South Dakota . . 
New Jersey .... 
All others 


Acres 

361,000 
364,000 
300,000 
245,000 
144,000 
197,000 
118,000 
105,000 
90,000 
74,000 
613,000 


Acres 

17.4 
14.9 
16.9 
18.7 
17.6 
14.9 
15.7 
15.2 
16.5 
17.8 
14.0 


Bushels 

6,277,000 
5,435,000 
5,058,000 
4,578,000 
2,525,000 
2,378,000 
1,905,000 
1,585,000 
1,571,000 
1,310,000 
8,605,000 


Dollars 

5,729,000 
3,950,000 
4,501,000 
4,135,000 
2,458,000 
2,834,000 
1,715,000 
1,561,000 
1,774,000 
1,236,000 
8,978,000 


United States . . 


2,611,000 


16.1 


41,227,000 


38,879,000 



the production far exceeding that of any other state. The 
acreage sown in the fall of 1917 for the 1918 crop was more 
than double that of the previous year, or about 2,250,000 
acres. South Dakota harvested 350,000 acres, nearly four 
times its average acreage, and the acreage for 1918 consider- 
ably exceeds that of the previous year. North Dakota now 
(1918) exceeds all other states in rye production, and South 
Dakota's acreage exceeds that of Minnesota or Wisconsin. 
The highest average production of rye to the acre is that 
recorded in Montana, 21.3 bushels. Idaho, Wyoming, and 
Washington all show high acre yields, but none of these 
states is an important producer of the crop. Of the states 
where rye is important, the highest yields are those of Min- 




220 FIELD CROPS 

nesota, 18.9 bushels to the acre, and Iowa, 18.4 bushels. The 
highest value to the acre is reported from the New England 
states, and the lowest from the South. The value of an 
acre of rye in Wisconsin is $18.97, and in Michigan, $16.12. 
278. Growing the Crop. Rye will grow on rather poorer 
soils than the other cereals, and is frequently planted on 
land which is low in fertility or which is not in good condi- 
tion to produce crops, such as that which is just being brought 

WIS. mmam^mmi^mmimmmmm^mmmm 15.2% 

MICH. m^^^mmg^^g^m^^^^^lig^ j^3 20r„ 

PENN. i^m^mm^^m^ma^m^^mi 12.3% 

MINN. m^^^^^^mm^mami^i^ li.i% 

N. T. ■■■■^■■l^iH 6.1% 

N. DAK. mmmmmi^^^ 5.8% 

NEBR. 

INDIANA 

S. DAK. 

N. J. 

AU Others HHHHi^l^HHBHH^H^Ha^BBHB^^IHBBHB^H 20.9% 

Figure 82. — Graph showing the percentage of the rye crop of the United States an- 
nually produced in the ten states of largest production, 1908-1917. 

into cultivation. Materially increased yields are obtained by 
growing this crop on good soil and in a well-prepared seed 
bed. The best yields are obtained from loam soils which 
are quite fertile. The seed bed for winter rye should be pre- 
pared by plowing some time previous to sowing, as early 
as August 1, if it is possible to remove the previous crop by 
that time. The land should then be disked and harrowed 
to make it fine and mellow, and to prevent drying out. It 
should be harrowed often enough during the interval between 
plowing and seeding to prevent the growth of weeds. Sow- 
ing with the grain driU is preferable to broadcast seeding. 
The usual rate of seeding is from 5 to 6 pecks to the acre, 
though as much as 8 pecks may be sown when winter pasture 
is desired. 

The time of seeding depends on the locality and the use 
which is to be made of the crop. If intended for fall pasture, 
the seed may be sown early in August in the Northern states, 



U8E8 OF RYE 221 

or during the latter part of August or early in September 
farther south. If grown for grain alone, September is the 
usual month for seeding in the North, and October in the 
South. Winter rye may be sown later than winter wheat, 
and is not usually sown until after wheat seeding is finished. 




Figure 83. — A field of rye ready for harvest. 

The methods of harvesting and threshing are not different 
from those in use with the other grains. 

279. Uses of the Rye Grain. In the United States, only 
a small portion of the rye crop is normally used as human 
food. At the present time (1918), however, it is largely used 
as a wheat substitute. The grain is usually ground into 
flour and made into bread, though a few cereal breakfast 
foods are made wholly or in part from this grain. In 
Russia and various portions of northern Europe, rye bread is 
one of the chief foods of the people. The bread made from 
rye flour is close in texture and dark in color. About one 
third of the rye crop in America is normally used in the man- 
ufacture of alcohol and alcoholic beverages, the process being 



222 FIELD CROPS 

somewhat similar to that employed in the manufacture of 
these liquors from corn. The government has recently 
restricted the use of grain for alcohol. The grain is also 
excellent for feeding to stock, though best results are usually 
obtained when rye is fed in combination with other grains. 
The best use of the grain can be made when it is fed to horses 
or hogs. For feeding to hogs it should be combined with 
barley, corn, or shorts, while it is best for horses when fed 
with oats. 

280. Uses of the Green Plant. The green plant is an 
important item of stock food, both as late fall and early 
spring pasture and as a crop for green feed. Rye which is 
sown in August or early in September will furnish con- 
siderable pasturage during the fall months, and can be pas- 
tured quite closely without danger of winterkilling. The 
plants from this early sowing should be pastured closely 
enough to prevent the formation of heads in the fall. Rye 
also furnishes excellent pasture in early spring, and may be 
pastured for two or three weeks at that time without seri- 
ously reducing the yield of grain. For feeding green to 
stock, the plants should be cut about the time they come into 
head, as the straw becomes stiff and wiry and is unpalatable 
if allowed to become more mature. 

Rye is frequently plowed under as green manure to add 
humus to the land. It makes a quick growth in the spring 
and produces a large quantity of material early enough so 
that it can be plowed down and another crop grown on the 
land the same season. In the South, rye makes a good 
winter cover, as it may be sown later than most other crops, 
it never winterkills, and it begins to grow as soon as the 
first warm days come. While it is excellent to prevent the 
soil from washing, it adds little to the fertility of the land 
and is of much less value as a green manure crop than any of 
the legumes. If sown with winter vetch or field peas, it pro- 
vides a support and increases the supply of vegetable matter. 



DISEASES AND INSECTS 223 

281. Uses of the Straw. Rye straw is of little value for 
feeding, but its stiff, wiry texture, which makes it dis- 
tasteful to stock, makes it useful for various other pur- 
poses. It is used in the manufacture of coarse straw 
articles, such as cheap straw hats, strawboard, and paper, 
and for the stuffing of horse collars. For the latter purpose, 
the grain is flailed out to prevent the straw from being broken, 
or is threshed with special machines which keep the straw 
straight, Rye straw is also much in favor as packing mate- 
rial for trees and other nursery stock, and as bedding for live 
stock. Breeders of fancy horses and of exhibition stock 
of other kinds often pay extra prices for rye straw for bedding. 
In eastern markets rye straw is sometimes quoted as high 
as second grade timothy and almost as high as the grain. 

282. Diseases and Insect Enemies. The most common 
disease of rye is ergot, in which the grains are replaced by 
long black or purplish masses of spores. This disease occurs 
on many of the wild and cultivated grasses and occasionally 
on the other small grains, but of our cultivated crops it is 
most frequent on rye. The spores of this parasite enter the 
ovule when it begins to develop and the growth of the fungus 
gradually replaces that of the ovule. By the time the grain 
matures, the spore-mass of ergot has developed into a hard, 
elongated, slightly curved body from one half to one and one 
half inches long. The fungus reduces the yield of grain to 
some extent, but it is most serious when it occurs in consider- 
able quantity and causes poisoning and other serious dis- 
orders of stock which eat it. Ergot is used to some extent 
in medicine. The best preventive measures are thorough 
cleaning of the seed and rotation of crops so as to avoid sow- 
ing rye on the same land two years in succession. No other 
disease of rye is serious, though both black and brown rust 
sometimes occur. This crop is less seriously affected by 
insect pests than wheat and preventive measures against 
insect attacks are seldom necessary. 



224 FIELD CROPS 

LABORATORY AND FIELD EXERCISES 

1. Make a study and write a description of the rye plant, as has 
already been done with the other cereals. 

2. If it is possible to obtain several samples, have them judged 
and placed according to their relative value. 

REFERENCES 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, Bailey. 

Farm Crops, Burkett. 

The Small Grains, Carleton. 

Southern Field Crops, Duggar. 

Cereals in America, Hunt. 

Field Crop Production, Livingston. 

Productive Farm Crops, Montgomery. 

Farmers' Cyclopedia of Agriculture, Wilcox and Smith. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

756. The Culture of Rye in the Eastern United States. 

894. Rye Growing in the Southeastern States. 



CHAPTER VITT 

FLAX 

HISTORY ANIJ DIOSCRIPTION 

283. Origin and History. Flax, lik(; wh(;a,t, has boon 
jrrown frorrj th(i (}arli(;Ht tini(5K of wFiich wo havo rocords. I Ik 
oarlior cultivation was for th(i produ(;tion of fi}>or, the rnanu- 
factuHi of doth (liri(;n) from flax fih(;r ])('Anir an art which was 
practi(;(id by th(j ancic^rit l^]^y[)tians and ilinduK. Tho uko 
of tho Kood f(jr th(i rnanufactunj of oil and for fotjdin^ to Htock 
Booms to havo boon of cornparativ(;ly rocont dovolopniont. 
Flax still Ki'ows wild in thci rogion around tho Black Soa, in 
what is now Asiatic Turk(;y. While it is quiUi poHsibh} that 
this is the nt^ion from wliich it was originally obtairKjd, this 
plant is so lik(;ly to riin wild in localiti(jK where it is culti- 
vated, and to maintain its(;lf in the wild state for years, that 
it is aiually possible that it may have been brouj^ht to the 
Black Soa nj^ion from mimt other (;ountry. In fact, flax 
is quite froqu(;ntly found j^rowinj^ wilrl in thci United States, 
though it is w(;ll known that it is not native. I'he cultiva- 
tion of flax was carri(jd from Kii^ypi and w(;stern Asia into 
lMnop(j, and from Europe it was introduco^J at an early date 
into America. The ancient peoples of central L^uropo culti- 
vated a perennial species, but this was later replaced by thr; 
anrmal sp(u;ies from Westcirn Asia. 

284. Botanical Characters and Relationships. Flax Ijo- 
loiigs to th(; Linaceae, or flax family, th(j tyj^ical j^onus and 
tho only one which grows in the northern part of the United 
States being Linum, to which the cultivated flax belongs. 
The only species of this genus which is cultivated in the 
United States is Linum usitatissimum though two other 

1&— 225 



226 



FIELD CROPS 



species are occasionally cultivated in other parts of the world 
and a number of species grow wild in America and elsewhere. 
Our common flax is an annual, with a single upright stem 
and a long taproot with few small branches. The number 
of the basal branches and the length of the fruiting branches of 
the stem depend largely on the thickness of seeding. Plants 




Fiiiure 84. — Field uf liax in bluuiii. 



which have plenty of room to develop will produce numer- 
ous branches, while those that are crowded branch little or 
not at all, except for the branches of the panicle. The flax 
plant grows from 12 to 36 inches high, the length of straw 
depending on the variety, the soil, and the season. The 
leaves are alternate, lanceolate, from one half to one and 
one half inches long. The flowers are produced in a leafy 
terminal panicle; the flower parts are in fives, the flowers 
themselves being about a half inch across and usually of a 
light blue color. The rounded capsules contain eight or 
ten seeds, which are usually light brown in color; they are 
flattened and have a smooth, shining or polished surface. 



IMPORTANCE OF FLAX 227 

The stems of flax are made up of three layers, the bark, 
the wood, and the pith. The bark is composed of several 
layers, of which the most important from an economic point 
of view is the bast, or fiber, cells. These cells are only about 
one tenth to one sixth of an inch long, but are so firmly 
fastened together that fibers of the entire length of the straw 
may be removed. The process of separating these fibers 
from the other portions of the stem is described elsewhere. 
(Section 292). 

IMPORTANCE OF THE CROP 

285. World Production. There are few plants which 
are put to a greater variety of uses than flax. The fiber from 
the stem is used in the manufacture of many articles, from 
the finest linen cloth to coarse twine and bagging. The oil 
from the seeds is used in the manufacture of paint, varnishes, 
and other articles; the grain from which the oil has been 
removed is fed to stock. The mucilage-like substance which 
exudes from the seed coat when the grain is dampened is 
made use of to some extent in medicine, in the making of 
poultices and for other purposes. The greater portion of the 
flax which is grown in this country is produced for the seed, 
from which oil and oilmeal are manufactured, though the 
straw is used to some extent in the manufacture of twine, 
bagging, and upholstered articles. 

Fiber flax is produced largely in Russia and in Austria- 
Hungary, Russia normally furnishing nearly four fifths of the 
world's supply. Argentina is the leading country in the pro- 
duction of seed flax, the United States and Russia ranking 
next in importance. Argentina produced more than 29 
per cent of the entire world's crop of flaxseed in the five years 
from 1909 to 1913; European Russia, slightly less than 20 
per cent; British India, 18 per cent; and the United States, 
slightly less than 18 per cent. The average world produc- 
tion for this period was 109,000,000 bushels, 



228 FIELD CROPS 

286. Production in the United States. In the ten years 
from 1908 to 1917, as shown in Table XIV, nearly half of the 
flax crop of the United States was produced in North Dakota, 
the average area devoted to flax in that state being 1,074,000 
acres, and the average production 8,361 ,000 bushels. Minne- 
sota and South Dakota each produced nearly one fifth of 
the crop, most of the remainder being grown in Montana. 
Figure 85 shows graphically the portion of the crop produced 
in the four leading states. The production of flax is much 

N. DAE. ^^^■^^^—H ■ ^■^—^■—^^—^ 48.1% 
MINN. ^m^mm^^a^m^ 18.5% 
S. DAK. m^mm^m^^m^m i8.5% 

MONT. ^^HB^^^^ 12.7% 
AU Others ^m 2.2% 

Figure 85. — Graph showing the percentage of the total flax crop of the United 
States produced in the four leading states, and in all others, 1908-1917. 

more important in North Dakota than in any other state, 
the acreage being about half that in oats and only slightly less 
than that devoted to barley. In annual value, the flax crop of 
the United States exceeds rice, ranking next to rye. The aver- 
age annual value of the crop for the ten years was $28,111,000. 
The standard weight of a bushel of flax is 56 pounds. 

GROWING THE CROP 

287. Soils Adapted to Flax. In America, flax is grown 
almost entirely in newly settled districts, and is quite gener- 
ally the first crop sown after the breaking of prairie sod. 
There are two reasons for this practice. One is that flax 
grows better than almost any other crop on tough sod and 
it is effective in subduing new land; the other is that when 
flax is grown for several years in succession, the land becomes 
"flax sick" and fails to produce a profitable crop. The con- 
dition known as flax sickness is explained elsewhere (Section 
295). The crop grows best in a rather cool climate and on 
soils that are not too heavy. Sandy loams are better adapted 
to flax than are clay loams or heavy clays. The idea is very 



GROWING FLAX 



229 



common among farmers that flax is "hard on the land," but 
the failure of the crop when it is grown for several successive 
years on the same field is due more to diseases than to the 
removal of soil fertility. The general practice of growing 
flax only on new land makes the use of fertilizers and manures 
practically unnecessary. 

Table XIII. Average annual acreage, production^ and farm value 
of the flax crop of the United States and of the four leading states 
during the ten years from 1908 to 1917, inclusive. 



State 


Area 


Average 
yield per 
acre 


Production 


Farm Value 
Dec. 1 


North Dakota. . 

Minnesota 

South Dakota . . 

Montana 

All others 


Acres 

1,074,000 

352,000 

414,000 

264,000 

40,000 


Bushels 

7.9 
9.3 
8.1 
9.0 
9.4 


Bushels 

8,361,000 
3,220,000 
3,213,000 
2,717,000 
377,000 


Dollars 

13,768,000 

5,388,000 

4,836,000 

3,572,000 

549,000 


United States . . 


2,144,000 


8.2 


17,388,000 


28,133,000 



288. Preparation of the Land. The usual method of 
preparing sod land for flax is to flat break it in the fall or early 
in the spring, running the plow just deep enough to turn the 
sod over. It may be cut up with the disk harrow in the 
spring if the breaking was done the preceding summer or 
fall, setting the disks quite straight to avoid turning up the 
unrotted turf. The use of the roller or some other implement 
for packing the soil is advisable on newly plowed land. The 
seed is sometimes sown on new breaking with little or no 
preparation, but the increased yields which are obtained 
where a good seed bed has been prepared usually pay for the 
extra work. On old land, deep plowing and thorough prep- 
aration are necessary in order to get the best results. A 
firm, well-packed seed bed is more essential to success with 
flax than with almost any other crop. 

289. Preparing the Seed for Sowing. Thorough clean- 
ing and grading of the seed are necessary to obtain the best 



230 FIELD CROPS 

yields. All light seed, straw, dirt, and weed seed should be 
removed by running the grain through the fanning mill 
several times. By grading, seeds of uniform size and weight 
are obtained, all of which contain practically the same quan- 
tity of food material for the young plants. If proper care 
is taken in sowing to cover the seed to a uniform depth, the 
growth of the crop throughout the season is uniform, and 
it all ripens at the same time, an important consideration. 
After the seed has been cleaned and graded, it should be 
treated with the formaldehyde solution recommended for 
wheat smut (Section 196, c). This destroys any spores of the 
flax wilt fungus which may adhere to the seed, and seems 
also to be of actual benefit to the early growth of the plants. 
The best method of treatment is to sprinkle the solution on 
a pile containing from 5 to 10 bushels of seed, shoveling it 
over so that it is all reached by the fungicide. About one 
half gallon of the solution is needed for each bushel of seed. 
After all the seed is moistened, cover the pile with a canvas 
or blanket for a couple of hours and shovel the seed over 
once or twice during the first hour after treating. The seed 
may be sown with the grain drill after it has been treated. 

290. Sowing the Seed. The usual method of sowing flax 
is with the grain drill, the type with press wheels being rather 
better than any other, as it helps to supply the firm seed 
bed so necessary for the best growth of this crop. The usual 
depth of seeding is from 3^ to 1 inch. In the United States 
the common rate of seeding is from 2 to 3 pecks to the acre. 
This seeding produces plants with numerous branches, and 
encourages the production of large yields of seed. On the 
other hand, thick seeding produces single stems, long straight 
fiber, and comparatively few seeds. When flax is grown for 
fiber, the rate of seeding should be greatly increased. The 
quantity of seed sown for fiber production in Europe is 2 
bushels or more to the acre. The young plants are quite 
easily injured by late spring frosts, hence seeding should be 



HARVESTING FLAX 231 

delayed until danger from them is practically past. On the 
other hand, seeding at the earliest safe date is desirable in 
order to escape the early fall frosts. Flax is usually sown in 
the latter half of May and harvested early in September, 
the growing season of the crop being from 90 to 100 days. 

HARVESTING AND HANDLING, 

291. Harvesting the Crop. The usual method of harvest- 
ing seed flax is with the grain binder. The crop cures readily 
in the shock and is not easily injured by the weather, though 
excessive rains will reduce the value of the seed. The 
seed is removed from the straw with the ordinary thresh- 
ing machine. The harvesting of fiber flax is quite another 
matter, as practically all the work must be done by hand 
to insure fiber of the best quality. Various machines have 
been devised for the harvesting and later handling of fiber 
flax, but they have not been entirely satisfactory. The large 
amount of hand labor required in the production of this 
crop accounts for its failure to find favor with American 
farmers. For the profitable production of fiber flax, an 
abundance of cheap labor is necessary. The plants are 
pulled by hand and tied into small bundles, and are then 
put into shocks for curing. Cutting them off by machinery 
permits weathering and contact with the soil which injure 
the fiber at the cut ends. 

292. The Handling of Fiber Flax. While the production 
of flax for fiber may never become important in America, 
the various steps in its handling are of interest. The seed 
is threshed out of the bundle after it has cured for two or 
three weeks in the shock, either by rubbing or by holding the 
heads between revolving rollers while the straw is held in the 
hands. The straw is then bound into bundles for the next 
process, which is known as retting. This is the preparation 
of the straw for the removal of the outer layers from the 
stalk, by spreading it thinly on the ground and exposing it to 



232 



FIELD CROPS 



the weather for three or four weeks. After this time, the 
various layers separate easily and the wood and bark are 
removed by a process known as breaking. The straw is 
either pounded with wooden mallets or bent in some sort of 
machine, but the best quality of fiber is obtained when the 




Figure 86. — Samples of flax: at the left, the fiber type; at the right, flax grown 
for seed production. 

work is done by hand with mallets. Any coarse fiber, bark; 
or wood which remains is removed by a process known as 
scutching, which consists of beating the bundles of fiber with 
a series of paddles. This is sometimes done by hand, but 
usually by machinery. The fiber is then sorted according 
to its quality and baled into bundles of about 200 pounds 
each. It is kept in these bales until it is spun into thread 
and woven into cloth, either alone or in combination 
with cotton. Some of the finest laces and fabrics are made 
from linen thread. The coarser fiber, or tow, is used in the 
manufacture of twine and in upholstering. 

MARKET AND RETURNS 

293. Market Grades of Flaxseed. Minneapolis is one 
of the principal markets for flaxseed, and the official grades 
fixed by the MinneapoHs Board of Grain Appeals may be 
taken as standard. These grades are No. 1 Northwestern, 
No. 1, No. 2, and No grade. No. 1 Northwestern flaxseed 



DISEASES OF FLAX 233 

''shall be mature, sound, dry, and sweet. It shall be north- 
ern grown. The maximum quantity of fields stack, storage, 
or other damaged seed intermixed shall not exceed 123^^ per 
cent. The minimum weight shall be 51 pounds to the 
measured bushel, commercially pure seed." No. 1 flaxseed 
may contain 25 per cent of immature or damaged seed, and 
weigh not less than 50 pounds to the bushel. The other 
grades include flax not fit for either of the higher grades. 

294. Prices and Acre Value. The average farm price of 
flaxseed in the United States for the ten years from 1908 to 
1917 was $1,775 per bushel, wdth a range from $1,147 in 
1908 to $2,968 in 1917. The flax crops of the United States 
since 1913 have been all small, while that of 1917 was the 
smallest in man}^ years. This small crop, combined with 
the high prices of all other grains and the difficulty of ob- 
taining cargo space for flax shipments from Argentina, have 
caused flax prices to reach the highest point ever known 
(1918). The price which can ordinarily be expected for flax- 
seed varies from $1.25 to $2.00 per bushel. At present, the 
IMinneapolis price for flax is around $4.00 per bushel. The 
average acre value usually ranges from $10 to $12, though in 
recent years it has been slightly higher. This is for the seed 
alone. Where there is a demand for the straw, this brings in 
some additional return. As flax is ordinarily grown with 
ver}^ little expense, there is a reasonable profit in the crop. 

DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES 

295. Diseases and Insect Enemies. The principal dis- 
ease which attacks flax in this country is flax wilt. It is this 
disease which commonly causes the condition known as 
"flax-sick soil," though other fungous diseases produce the 
same result. Flax wilt is a fungus which enters the young 
plant, from spores either in the soil or on the seed. The 
fungus grows inside the tissues of the plant and fills the 
cells, causing the plant to die as if from lack of water. The 



234 FIELD CROPS 

plants are attacked at all stages of growth, from young seed- 
lings to maturity. The best preventive measures are to sow 
only clean seed from which all dirt and pieces of flax straw 
have been removed, to treat the seed with the formaldehyde 
solution (Section 195), and to grow flax on new land onty, or 
as a single crop in a rotation of several years' duration. 
Much can also be accomplished by saving seed from plants 
which mature in flax-sick soil and hence are resistant to the 
disease. Manure containing flax straw or from stock fed 
on flax straw should not be put on land on which flax is to be 
grown. Several other fungous diseases occur, mostly simi- 
lar to flax wilt, though less serious, and yield to the same 
treatment. Fortunately the crop is not very subject to 
serious injury from insects. 

ROTATION, USES, IMPROVEMENT 

296. Place in the Rotation. On account of the fungous 
diseases which attack flax when it is grown for several years 
on the same land, rotation of crops is particularly essential 
if this crop is to become a permanent one in any locality. 
On account of the common practice of growing it only on new 
land, no definite rotations containing flax have yet been 
established. To escape injury from flax diseases, this crop 
should not be grown on the same field more frequently than 
once in five years, and better results are obtained where 
a cultivated crop and a grass crop are included in the rota- 
tion than where small grains alone are grown. 

297. Uses of Flaxseed. Practically all the flaxseed pro- 
duced in the United States is utilized in the manufacture 
of linseed oil. There are two methods of extracting the oil 
from the seed, known as the old process and the new process. 
The old process consists of crushing the seed, heating it to 
about 165 degrees F., and placing it in sacks or between 
cloths and forcing the oil out by pressure. The new process 
differs from this in that the crushed and heated seed is placed 



USES OF FLAXSEED 



235 



in tanks or cylinders and treated with naphtha to extract the 
oil. This oil is then used in the manufacture of paints, 
varnishes, oilcloth or linoleum (in combination with ground 
cork), and various other articles. The meal from which the 
oil has been extracted is used for feeding to stock, either as 
it comes from the presses as oilcake, or crushed or ground 




tigure 



87._A linseed oil mill, with steeltanksattho right for storing the flaxseed. 



into the form known as oilmeal or linseed meal. Oilmeal is 
very rich in protein, and is used for feeding to dairy cows and 
to other animals. On account of its richness, it must be fed 
in small quantities, in combination with other grains. Whole 
flaxseed is seldom fed to stock, for it is too high in price as 
compared with other grains. Flax straw in not usually re- 
garded as a feeding stuff of value, though it contains con- 
siderable nutriment. In years when other forage is scarce, 
however, it is quite a useful feed. The straw is now utiHzed 
to some extent in this country in the manufacture of twine, 
coarse bagging, tow for upholstering, and felting material. 
298. Improvement of the Crop. While the growing of 
fiber flax may never become an important industry in the 
United States, more attention can well be given to the pro- 



236 FIELD CROP 8 

duction of better grades of straw for the mills which utilize 
it in the manufacture of twine and other articles. The farmer 
thus gets a double return for his crop in the sale of both the 
seed and the straw. Selection of plants that have the long- 
est straw combined with a good yield of seed will greatly 
improve the quality of the straw for fiber purposes. On the 
other hand, the selection of heavy-yielding plants and their 
increase into sufficient quantities for field planting can be 
carried out along the lines recommended for the improve- 
ment of the small grains (See index) . The greatest improve- 
ment, however, can be made by developing wilt-resistant 
strains. Excellent work has already been done in this 
direction, but much remains to be accomplished. The best 
results come from selection of resistant strains in the local- 
ity in which they are to be grown. The plants which mature 
in a field attacked by flax wilt should be harvested and 
the seed carefully saved. Only by growing these resistant 
plants can strains not subject to the disease be developed. 

LABORATORY AND FIELD EXERCISES 

1. Mount specimens of the plant and the fiber and thread made 
from it. Add also a piece of fabric. 

2. Press some seeds and watch for traces of oil, or boil some and 
see whether oil rises to the surface. 

3. Samples of seed may be judged on the size and uniformity of 
the grain, freedom from green and shriveled seed, and freedom from 
other grains, weed seeds, and trash. 

REFERENCES 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, Bailey. 

The Small Grains, Carleton. 

Forage and Fiber Crops in America, Hunt. 

Field Crop Production, Livingston. 

Productive Farm Crops, Montgomery. 

Farmers' Cyclopedia of Agriculture, Wilcox and Smith. 

Farmers' Bulletilis: 

669. Fiber Flax. 

785. Seed Flax Production. 



CHAPTER IX . 

MISCELLANEOUS GRAIN CROPS 
RICE 

299. Origin and History. Rice is one of the oldest of 
cultivated plants, its cultivation in China dating back at 
least 4,000 years. It is evidently a native of that country, 
for it still grows wild in the southern portion. Rice was 
carried from China into India, then into western Asia, Egypt, 
and southern Europe. Its introduction into the United 
States is said to date from 1694, when a small quantity was 
brought to Charleston, South Carolina. Its cultivation 
soon became quite general in the low lands along the Caro- 
lina coast, but it was not grown on a large scale elsewhere in 
North America until within the last thirty or thirty-five years. 

300. Botanical Characters. Rice does not differ materi- 
ally in its growth from the other cereals. Botanically, the 
rice plant is known as Oryza sativa. Its nearest relative 
in a wild state in the United States is the wild rice of the 
swamps, Zizania aquatica, which is used as food by the 
Indians and to a limited extent by white men. The culms 
of cultivated rice usually reach a height of from 4 to 5 feet, 
several culms being produced from one seed. The flowers 
are produced in compact panicles; the spikelets, which are 
one-flowered, are on short pedicals. The outer glumes are 
short scales; the inner or flowering glume, which incloses the 
kernel, is sometimes awned. The flowering glume and palea 
together make up the hull, or husk, which is usually yellowish 
brown in color. The inner portion of the grain is hard and 
white. Rice which is enclosed in the hull is known as paddy; 
that from which the hull has been removed is known as 
cleaned rice. 

237 



238 



FIELD CROPS 



301. Varieties. The two general types of rice are the 
lowland and the upland. The former is grown on rather low, 
level land which can be flooded from wells or streams, while 
the latter is produced without irrigation. The lowland is 
the type grown almost entirely in this country. The variety 
most commonly grown in South Carolina is the Carolina 




Figure 88. — The two common types of rice grown in America: Hon- 
duras on the left, a Japanese variety on the right 



Gold, with golden-yellow hulls. In Louisiana and Texas, 
the types usually grown are the Honduras and the Japan. 
Both are yellowish brown in color; the grains of Honduras 
rice are larger and longer, but relatively thinner, than those 
of the Japan type. Though Japan rice is of comparatively 
recent introduction, large quantities of it are now grown. 

302. Importance of the Crop. Rice is one of the world's 
greatest food crops, being a staple article of diet for several 
hundred millions of people in India, China, and Japan. The 
total annual production of cleaned rice is something hke 
175,000,000,000 pounds, indicating an annual production of 
rough rice, or paddy, of about 280,000,000,000 pounds, as 



IMPORTANCE OF RICE 239 

compared with the world's wheat crop of 204,000,000,000 
pounds, and a sUghtly smaller corn crop. By far the 
greater part of this enormous crop is raised in Asia. India 
has an annual production of 70,000,000,000 pounds of 
cleaned rice, China 50,000,000,000 pounds, and Japan 
18,000,000,000 pounds. The total European production 
of rice amounts to about 1,000,000,000 pounds annually, 
most of which is grown in Italy and Spain. 

In comparison with these figures, the production of rice 
in the United States is insignificant, the average yield for 
the five years from 1913 to 1917 being only 862,000,000 
pounds. Practically all this crop is grown in the four states 
of Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, and California. In slavery 
times. South Carohna produced most of the rice grown in the 
United States, but after the slaves were freed the industry 
rapidly declined. The fields along the Atlantic Coast are 
small and not adapted to the use of modern seeding and 
harvesting machinery, while the level plains of Louisiana 
and Texas, with abundant water for irrigation from wells 
and rivers, furnish ideal conditions for the cheap production 
of rice on a large scale. Since the introduction of modern 
machinery into this district, about 1885, there has been an 
immense increase in the production of rice, though the United 
States still imports more than 200,000,000 pounds of cleaned 
rice annually. In 1917, 500,000 acres were devoted to rice 
production in Louisiana, 230,000 acres in Texas, 146,000 
acres in Arkansas, and 80,000 acres in California. The 
average yield to the acre was about 37.6 bushels of rough rice 
of 45 pounds each, equivalent to about 1,080 pounas of 
cleaned rice. The total crop of the United States was valued 
at $69,000,000. This is one third less than the value of the 
rye crop. 

303. Conditions Necessary to Production. The con- 
ditions which are necessary to the successful production of 
lowland rice include a soil which retains moisture and is 



240 FIELD Ch'OPS 

level enoui2;ii to be readily irripitod, an abundant supply of 
water for irrigation, and a warm growing- season. The fer- 
tile river valleys and plains of Arkansas, Texas, and Louisiana 
are ideal for the production of this crop. 

304. Growing the Crop. The methods of preparing; the 
land for rice as practiced in Texas and Louisiana are not 
ditYerent from those used in the Northern and (^entral {States 
for other cereals. The land is usually plowed in the sprint- 
and is disked and harrowed to form a good seed bed. To 
prevent too rapid loss of water from a looso soil, newly 
plowed land is sometimes ix)lled. The seed is generally sown 
with a grain drill at the rate of from 1 to 2 bushels to the 
acre, usually from April 15 to INIay L'S. The seeding and 
harvesting seasons may extend over a considerable period on 
a given farm, thus enabling the farmer to put in a com- 
paratively large acreage with a small equipment. Water is 
not usually applied to rice fields until the crop is about 8 
inches high; then it is let in to a depth of from 3 to inches, 
and this depth is maintained till the crop is nearly mature. 
To prevent the water from becoming stagnant, a practically 
continuous flow is provided, with drainage to maintain the 
proper level. When the crop begins to ripen, the water is 
drawn off to allow the ground to diy out sufticiently for 
harvesting. The ordinary grain binder is used; the methods 
of harvesting, stacking, and threshing are not diti'erent from 
those used with other grains. 

305. Uses of Rice and Rice Products. Rice is mostly 
used as human food. In the United States, the milling pro- 
cess consists in removing the hull and inner skin of the grain 
and in polishing the kernel between pieces of sheepskin to 
give it the luster re(]uired by the American trade. The 
Orientals dispense with this polishing process, and thus 
retain a large part of the food value of the rice which we lose. 
The portion of the rice kernel which is removed in the pol- 
ishing process is more valuable relatively than that which 



77/ a; (SHAIN SOlffJ/niMH 241 

romairiH, aw it contairiH noarly all Uio fal. I'oliHlKHl rice; con- 
tains of (ii^;(;Htibl(; nutricsntH 4.0 ])os (;(;nt of f)rot(;iM, 72.8 fxtr 
cent of carboliydatfiH, ;ind 0.4 f)(;r (;ont of fat. The; }>y- 
proflijcts of tfic; milling; irHlijstry an; ricAi IiuIIh, rico hniri, 
and rice flour or [)olisli. iiico hulls an; r>f little; valiic; (txccpi 
as fertilizer or rnulcli, for they contain a hiviro f)(;rr;(;ntaj!;(; of 
fiber and little; nijtrirrKint. liicc, bran nwd rice polish, how- 
ever, are both valuable; stock f(;c;dH. Jiice straw is about 
(;qual in f(;(;din|^ v.'ilue; to prairie hay, ;uid is quite; larjre;ly 
usee! as re)u^h fe;e;d fe)r ste)ck. It is nlso use;el to some e;xte;nt in 
the nianuf;u!ture; e>f straw hats, strawboard, and other article;s. 

TirE rjRAiN Horu;ifTJM8 

306. Origin and History. The; sor^hiims whie;h are; 
f^re>wn in vjuious parts oi' the; worlei fe>r ^rain anei fe>ra^e; for 
the nujst part have f)e;en e|e;ve!le)f)e;el in Asia anel Afrir;?!,. A 
largo nun)be;r of ve;ry dive;rso fe)rrnH han be;e;n prexiuceid, 
indudinj^ the; many swe;e;l, ov fe>rage sorghums, the grain- 
}>earing varie;tie;s sue;h as kafir, milo, juiej eJurra, anel the; 
fibe;r-producing type, represented by broejrncorn. Tha grain 
sejrghums are; imporf.ant cre)ps for the; pre)e]uctie)n of food for 
man and animals quite; gene;rally in Africa, Inelia, ane] pe>r- 
lions of (>hina. The;ir cultivation in the lJnite;eJ State;s 
dateis back only to about 1875, though se)me; of the typ(;s haej 
eJoubtless been grown at an carlie;r [)e}rioeJ, but had disap- 
peare;fl fre>m cultivation. 

307. Botanical Description. 'Jlie various tyfxis of e;ultj- 
vateel se)rghums are; all gre>upe;fi \)y fjeitanists under the; he;;i/l 
e>f Andropo'f^on sori'hum. 'J'his original type is still found 
quite generally in the warmer portiejns of the globe. In 
general, the sorghiams are large annual grasse;s with tall, 
pithy stalks, growing fre)m 4 te> 10 fe3e;t high, anej be;aring the 
se;e;ds in a rathe;r e;ompact branching he;aej or panie;le. 'J'he; 
he;ight of the stalk, the; shape ejf the; he;afl, the size of the 
sf;e;ds, and other characters are decidedly variable in the 

Hi— 



21 : 



FIELD C7?0P*Sf 



(lilYercnt typos and varieties. Dwarf fonns which do not 
grow more than 2 or 'A ivH tall are known, while g;iant types 
reachinji; more than 15 feet in height have been imported 
from Africa. I'he heads vary frc^in the close, compact form 




Kigiuo Sit. -Sheiivi'sol gram sorgiiums: 1, J^'^l katir; 'J, Nliallu; o, J<lac'kluill kahr; 
4, White diirra; 5, Brown kaoliang; (>, Yellow milo; 7, Dwarf inilo. 

of the durras to the wide spreading type of the broomcorns. 
The pith in. the stalks of the grain sorghums is dry or con- 
tains little juice, while that of the forage or sweet sorghums 
(sorgos) is filled with sweet juice. The long branching 
panicle separates the broomcorns from the other types of 
sorghum with shorter branches. Tlic sweet sorghums are 



TYPES OF GRAIN BOROHIJMH 213 

discussed under the heading of forage crops (Section 4 I2j . As 
the culture and requirements of broomcorn are quite similar 
to those of {.\\v. grain sorghums, tliat crop is considered in 
this v\\\i\){w. 

308. The Types of Grain Sorghums. Tlu; giaiii sorghums 
usually grown in tiie L'nit(Ml Sl:il(;s ;ir(; of two general tyf)es, 
kafir (kafir corn) and milo (milo maize). P'our oth(?r types, 
known as durra, feterita, shall u, and kaoliang, are occasionally 
grown. Th(; kafirs differ from <h(; other grain sorghums in 
that the pith is slightly juicy, tin; peduncles are always 
erect, and the panicles cylindrical. The sc^eds are white, 
pink, or red. The milos ar(.' less leafy than the kafirs, the 
lieads are ovate, and the peduncles are usually bent so that 
the heads turn downward. TIk; seeds are slightly flattened 
and are usually 3'ellowish-brown in color. The ordinary 
type is the yellow milo. The durras arc; quite similar to the 
milos, but the i)ith is always dry and the S(;eds are decidedly 
flattened. The seed is while; or nnldish l>rown in color. 
Feterita is an early maturing grain sorghum similar to durra, 
which has n^cently become quit(; f)opular in some sections 
of Kansas. The kaoliangs and shallu are recently introduced 
types and an; as y(!t of little inif)ortance. 

309. Importance of the Sorghums. The grain sorghums 
are larg(;ly grown in India, the waiiner jjortions (jf China, 
and Africa. In the United States, they are almost entireh^ 
confined to the Great Plains area, the country lying between 
the 98th meridian and the Rocky Mountains. In western 
Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska, they an; important 
crops. Only the earli(;st maturing vari(;ti(;s can })e grown as 
far north as South Dakota, or at the ordinary elevations in 
New Mexico and C'olorado. Sorghums are grown to some 
extent in the interior valleys of California, the type most 
common there being white durra, locally known as Egyptian 
corn. The value of the grain sorghum li(;s in its ability to 
resist drought and to mature a crof) of grain with little rain- 



244 



FIELD CROPS 



fall. It supplies a cultivated crop to use in rotation with the 
small grains in sections where the production of corn is un- 
certain, and takes the place of that grain for feeding to stock. 
The average area devoted to the grain sorghums in Kansas in 
the three years from 1915 to 1917 was 1,600,000 acres. In 
the same years, Oklahoma averaged 1,245,000 acres of these 




Figure 90 — Hai'voatiu^ katir for ft)rat;e with a corn binder. 



crops and Texas averaged 1,251,000 acres. The average 
production of these three states and of Colorado, New 
Mexico, and Arizona is 81,395,000 bushels, or one half more 
than the production of rye in the same years. 

310. Methods of Growing the Crop. The usual methods 
of preparing the land, planting the seed, and cultivating the 
grain sorghums are not different from those employed in the 
same district for the corn crop, except that the seed is sown 
more thickly in the rows. The plants should stand about 
4 to 6 inches apart for the best jdeld of grain and forage. 
From 4 to 6 pounds of seed will plant an acre. The sorghums 
are usually planted a little later than corn, as they are not 
quite as resistant to cold and grow very slowly till warm, 
settled weather, The crop is usually harvested by cutting it 



BROOMCORN 245 

with the corn binder and shockinj^ it Hke corn, or by cutting 
the heads from the stalks with knives or with some form of 
header. The shocked sorghum may then be fed to stock Hke 
corn fodder, or- it may be threshed Hke smaH grain. The 
kafir and milo heads may be stored in cribs Hke corn and fed 
without threshing, or they may be threshed Hke wheat or 
oats and only the threshed grain used for feeding. 

311. Value of the Grain. Most of the grain sorghum 
crop is used for feeding to stock, for which purpose it is 
nearly as valuable as corn. The seed is fed either whole or 
crushed; slightly better results are usually obtained from the 
crushed grain. The grain sorghums make up a large part 
of the prepared poultry feeds which are on the market, con- 
siderable quantities being used annually for this purpose. 
Only a small portion of the crop is used for human food, 
though very palatable breakfast foods, bread, and pan- 
cakes may be prepared from kafir and milo. The stalks 
and leaves of kafir, when properly cured, are fully as good 
for forage as the same parts of the corn plant. Milo is less 
leafy than kafir and the stalks are less palatable, so that 
milo stover is less valuable than that from kafir. 

BROOMCORN 

312. Culture. Broomcorn is not a grain crop nor can it 
be included with any other important class of crops, but it is 
so closely related to the grain sorghums that it can best be 
discussed with them. The methods of growing the crop 
are not different from those employed in the production of 
corn and the grain sorghums. Broomcorn is of two general 
types, the standard and the dwarf. Standard broomcorn 
grows from 8 to 10 feet high arid produces a long, slender, 
rather flexible brush; dwarf broomcorn grows from 4 to 6 
feet high and usually produces a shorter, stiffer brush. The 
crop is grown principally in Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, and 
Oklahoma; the standard type is more largely grown in cen- 



246 FIELD CROPS 

tral Illinois than elsewhere. It requires a fertile soil and 
plenty of moisture, while dwarf broomcorn produces brush 
of the best quality on light sandy land. Dwarf broomcorn 
resists drought better than the standard, and is grown most 
extensively in Kansas and Oklahoma. The usual width be- 
tween rows of the standard is 33^2 f^et, with the plants 3 
inches apart in the row; dwarf broomcorn is planted in rows 
3 feet apart with the plants 2 inches apart in the row. From 
3 to 5 pounds of seed are planted to the acre. 

313. Harvesting. Dwarf broomcorn is harvested by 
pulling the heads from the stalks by hand when they are in 
bloom, as the brush is of inferior quality when the seeds 
mature. The brush is then thrown into wagons and hauled 
to the thresher. Standard broomcorn is harvested by 
'^tabling" before the heads are removed from the stalks. 
In tabhng, the stalks are bent over about 23^2 feet from the 
ground, two rows being bent together so that the heads of 
each extend about 2 feet beyond the other. The brush is 
removed by cutting the stalk with a small knife, about 6 
inches below the base of the head. The heads are laid in 
bunches on the ^'tables" as they are cut and are then hauled 
to the thresher. The seed is removed from the brush by a 
machine specially built for the purpose. The heads are 
carried to the cylinders on a toothed belt which runs at an 
angle to them so that the heads do not go completely between 
them. The upper portion of the heads passes between the 
cylinders sufficiently to remove the seed, and the brush is 
deposited on a table at the other end of the machine, from 
which it is taken to the curing shed. In harvesting, poorly 
formed heads should be left in the field, while crooked or 
discolored brush should be sorted out in threshing. 

314. Curing and Marketing. The curing is done in a 
well- ventilated shed which may be used for storing machinery 
or for other purposes during most of the year. The cleaned 
brush is placed on temporary slatted racks in layers 2 or 3 



BUCKWHEAT 247 

inches deep, with an inch or two of air space between the 
layers. Curing under cover is necessary to retain the de- 
sirable green color of the brush, and to prevent it from be- 
coming brittle or discolored. From two to four weeks of 
dry weather are required for curing, after which the brush 
should be neatly piled together or ''bulked" to prevent 
bleaching. After it is thoroughly dry, it is ready for baling. 
Broomcorn goes to market in bales of from 300 to 400 pounds 
in weight, the baling being done by horse-power presses. 
The price varies greatly with the size of the total crop and 
the length and quality of the brush. It ranges ordinarily 
from $50 to $100 a ton, though it may reach $200 or more in 
years when the crop is short. A good crop of dwarf brush is 
about 400 or 500 pounds to the acre, while standard broom- 
corn will produce from 600 to 800 pounds. 

BUCKWHEAT 

315. Origin and History. Buckwheat is one of the few 
grains which do not belong to the grass family, flax being 
the only other one which is of importance in America. It 
is a member of the dock or buckwheat family, the Poly- 
gonaceae, which includes few useful plants, but numer- 
ous bad weeds such as the docks, smartweeds, and knot- 
weeds. A peculiarity of this family is the three-angled 
(rarely four-angled) seeds. The ordinary buckwheat, Fago- 
pyrum esculentum, is a native of the Amur River district of 
Manchuria, where it is still found growing wild. A type 
which is grown to some extent in Maine and Vermont is the 
Tartary buckwheat, or ''India wheat," Fagopyrum tartar- 
icum, with smaller seeds, broader leaves, and more slender 
growth. This plant is a native of the plains in the interior 
of Siberia and Tartary. It was brought from Europe to 
the United States by the colonists. The name buckwheat 
is supposed to have been originally "beech-wheat" from the 
resemblance of the grain to small beech nuts. 



248 FIELD CROPS 

316. Botanical Description. The buckwheat plant is en- 
tirely different from that of the cereals, consisting of a single 
branching, succulent stem, broad leaves, and a main root 
with several branches. The plant grows usually about 3 
feet tall, with several branches, each of which ends in a flat- 
topped cluster of flowers. These clusters also spring from the 





1^ 








^ 


<j 



Figure 91 — Grains of the two most common varieties of buckwheat; Japanese 
at the left, Silverhull at the right. 

axils of the leaves. The leaves are alternate, triangular, and 
about as broad at the base as they are long, the width vary- 
ing from 2 to 4 inches. The flowers are white or pinkish- 
white, without petals, but with a five-parted calyx, eight 
stamens, and a three-parted pistil. The flower produces a 
single three-angled seed, grayish or brown in color, about 
one tenth of an inch long. 

317. Varieties. The most common varieties of the ordi- 
nary buckwheat are the Japanese and the Silverhull. These 
differ mainly in size and color. Silverhull is smaller and 
plumper and lighter in color than Japanese. Opinions differ 
as to which produces the more grain and the better quality 
of flour. Tartary buckwheat is smaller than the ordinary 
type and, according to growers in Maine, is somewhat hardier. 
It probably yields less than Japanese and Silverhull. 



IMPORTANCE OF BUCKWHEAT 249 

318. Importance. The entire area devoted to buckwheat 
in the United States is only about 8,000,000 acres annually, 
though in 1917 it was slightly over 1,000,000 acres. About 
three fourths of the crops is grown in New York and Penn- 
sylvania. The average production of the United States for 
the ten years from 1908 to 1917, inclusive, was 16,260,000 
bushels, of which New York grew 5,732,000 bushels and 
Pennsylvania 5,598,000 bushels. No other state produced 
more than a million bushels, the states of largest produc- 
tion being West Virginia, Virginia, and Michigan. Except 
in New York and Pennsylvania, buckwheat cannot be regard- 
ed as a staple crop, but is generally sown as a filler or catch 
crop on land where corn or some other early planted crop 
has failed. It yields well on poor land, hence it is grown 
quite generally on rocky hillsides and other dry locations. 
The best yield is produced on sandy loam soils. The chief 
value of buckwheat lies in its quick maturity, enabling it to 
ripen its seed when sown as late as July 1, thus giving an 
opportunity to get some return from fields where previous 
crops have been destroyed by floods or from other causes. 
As it makes a quick, rank growth, it is also an excellent crop 
for clearing land of weeds and for green manure. 

319. Method of Cultivation. Buckwheat should be sown 
on well-prepared land during the latter part of May or in 
June. Seeding as late as July 1 is possible where the grow- 
ing season is not too short. The usual rate of seeding is 
about 3 or 4 pecks to the acre. The seed may be sown broad- 
cast or with the grain drill. If sown broadcast, it should be 
well covered with the harrow. Cutting is usually delayed 
till the approach of cold weather, as the plants continue to 
bloom and produce seed until killed by frost. The usual 
method of cutting is with the self-rake reaper, the grain 
being cured in the bunches and not tied into bundles. These 
bunches are often set up into shocks to lessen the injury from 
weathering. Cutting with the grain binder is sometimes 



250 FIELD CROPS 

practiced. The bundles should be made small and should be 
set up in long shocks to facilitate curing. The grain is usu- 
ally hauled direct from the field to the threshing machine and 
threshed, because it is hkely to mold if stacked. 

320. Uses. Buckwheat is most largely used for the man- 
ufacture of pancake flour. In some sections, however, it is 
quite extensively used for feeding to stock. For hogs, it is 
ground and bolted to remove the hulls, but this extra work 
is hardly necessary when the grain is fed to other animals. 
Buckwheat is also an excellent poultry feed. The straw 
is coarse and stiff, so that it is of little value except as 
bedding or to make manure. The buckwheat plant is a 
large producer of honey, small fields often being sown for 
bee pasture. 

THE MILLETS 

321. Types of Millet. The term ''millet" includes a 
number of very different types of grasses, though it is gen- 
erally applied in this country to two plants, the foxtail mil- 
lets, Chaetochloa italica, and the broomcorn, or hog, millets, 
Panicum miliaceum. Both these plants probably originated 
in southwestern Asia, and have been cultivated there since 
very early times. They have been used as food plants for 
many centuries, and are still important items of food in the 
interior of China and in other portions of Asia, as well as in 
Russia. The foxtail millets are more generally grown in this 
country for forage than for grain. They are more fully dis- 
cussed in Section 424. 

322. Broomcom Millet. Broomcorn, or hog, millet, 
sometimes known as proso, has been grown in the United 
States only in recent years, having been introduced by immi- 
grants from Russia. The plant grows from 1 to 2 feet high, 
with numerous broad, hairy leaves and stiff, hollow stems. 
The heads are usually loose, open panicles resembling small 
heads of broomcorn, though in some varieties the branches 



BROOMGORN MILLET 



251 



of the panicle are much shorter, making a close head of 

the ''lump type." The cultivation of this crop is quite 

closely confined to the drier regions of the Northwest, North 

and South Dakota producing most of the broomcorn millet 

grown in the United 

States. The chief val- 
ue of the crop lies in 

its ability to resist 

drought and to mature 

in a short season, the 

grain ripening in from 

60 to 75 days from 

the time of seeding. 
The method of 

growing these millets 

is not different from 

that employed in the 

cultivation of other 

small grains. They 

are usually sown about 

June 1 , and are ready 

to harvest in August. 

The proper rate of 

seeding is from 2 to 3 

pecks to the acre. 

The crop is cut with the mower when the seed is in the hard 

dough stage, and is handled like hay. When the growth 

is tall enough, the grain binder may be used. The grain 

may be threshed with the ordinary threshing machinery. 

It makes a good feed to mix with other grains for cattle, 

sheep, and hogs, and is also excellent for poultry. Hay 

made from this class of millet is much less valuable than 

that from the foxtail type, because the stems are coarse and 

the leaves and stems are covered with coarse hairs, so that 

it is not relished by stock, 




Figure 92 — Heads of two types of broomcorn millet. 



252 FIELD CROPS 

323. Varieties. The varieties of broomcorn millet are 
usually known by the shape of the head, the color of the seed, 
or the locality from which they originally come. Among 
the best and most popular varieties are the Black Voronezh 
and Red Orenburg. 

LABORATORY AND FIELD EXERCISES 

It is desirable that laboratory specimens of the plants discussed 
in this chapter or the threshed grain or both plants and grain be avail- 
able for class use, so that they may be studied and the members of the 
class enabled to familiarize themselves with these little known or local 
crops. If any of these crops are important in the locality, careful 
studies of them should be made and exercises in judging given as sug- 
gested for the other grains. 

REFERENCES 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, Bailoy. 

Farm Crops, Burkett. 

The Small Grains, Carlcton. 

Southern Field Crops, Duggar. 

Cereals in America, Hunt. 

Field Crop Production, Livingston. 

The Corn Crops, Montgomery. 

Productive Farm Crops, Montgomery. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

688. The Culture of Rice in California. 

448. Better Grain Sorghum Crops. 

552. Kafir as a Grain Crop. 

559. Use of Corn, Kafir, and Cowpeas in the Home. 

686. Uses of Sorghum Grain. 

724. The Feeding of Grain Sorghums to Live Stock. 

827. Shallu, or "Egyptian Wheat." 

768. Dwarf Broomcorn. 

958. Standard Broomcorn. 



PART III— FORAGE CROPS 



CHAPTER X 
INTRODUCTION 

324. Definitions. A forage crop is any crop the leaves 
or stems or both of which are used either green or dried for 
feeding to stock. The green plants may be grazed, when 
they constitute pasture, or they may be cut and fed green, 
as a soiling crop. The practice of feeding in this manner is 
called soiling. Hay is the cured or dried stems and leaves 
of the finer grasses and other forage plants. Fodder is the 
cured stems and leaves of corn, sorghum, or other coarse 
plants, cut just before maturity and fed without removing 
the grain. Stover is corn or other fodder from which the 
grain has been removed. Straw is the stems and leaves of 
grain crops from which the seed has been removed; it cor- 
responds to the stover of the corn plant. Certain forage 
plants, of which corn is the principal one, may be cut green 
and stored in a tight enclosure built for the purpose (a silo), 
or occasionally they may be stacked without curing. In 
cither case, the product is known as silage. 

A grass is any member of the great order of plants known 
as the Gramineae, which includes not only the grasses as we 
commonly know them, but the cereals and many weedy 
plants as well. In the narrower sense in which it is com- 
monly used, the term includes only the meadow and pasture 
plants of this family, though it is sometimes used as a general 
term for any plant grown in meadows or pastures, whether 
a true grass or not. A legume is a plant of the other great 

253 



254 FIELD CROPS 

group of forage plants, the Leguminoseae, which includes the 
clovers, alfalfa, cowpea, soy bean, and many others. 

325. Importance of Forage Crops. The total area of the 
farms in the United States, according to the Census of 1910, 
was 878,798,325 acres, while the area of improved lands was 
478,451,750 acres. Of this area of improved lands, 311,- 
293,382 acres were in harvested crops, and 167,158,368 in 
woodlands, pastures, and orchards. The improved wood- 
lands are practically all pastured, while the acreage in 
orchards is comparatively small. It is safe, therefore, to 
assume that 155,000,000 acres are used for pasture. Of the 
area in harvested crops, 72,280,776 acres, or about 23 per 
cent, were devoted to hay and other forage production. In 
addition, a very large part of the area not hsted in farms, 
about 80 per cent of the total area of the United States, is 
used as pasture, including the range lands of the western 
prairies, the mountain slopes and valleys, and other lands not 
devoted to farming or too rough for improvement. The total 
acreage in harvested forage crops and improved pastures was 
something like 227,000,000 acres, as compared with 98,383,- 
000 acres in corn and 93,000,000 acres in other grain crops. ^ 

326. The Classes of Forage Crops. Practically all our 
forage plants belong to one or the other of the two great 
families, the grasses and the legumes. The more important 
forage grasses are perennial, and are used either for pasture 
or meadow. These include timothy, redtop, Kentucky blue 
grass, orchard grass, Johnson grass, and many others. The 
annual forage grasses are used either as hay or as soiling 
crops, though they may occasionally be utilized as temporary 
pastures. They include the millets and sorghums, and also 
the cereals that are sown for hay production in some sections 
of the United States. The leguminous forage plants may also 

lit may be of interest to the student to compare the above percentages with 
corresponding figures for older settled countries, as England and Germany. See 
Agricultural Economics, by H. C. Taylor, and the Cyclopedia of American A gricuK 
ture for data, j 



FORAGE PRODUCTION 



255 



be divided into perennials and annuals, the former class 
including such plants as alfalfa and the clovers^, and the latter 
the cowpea, soy bean, field pea, and vetch. A few miscel- 
laneous forage crops, usually used for soiling or pasture pur- 
poses, are included in the mustard family, the Crucifereae. 
These are rape, kale, cabbage, and kohl-rabi. Other plants 
are occasionally used as forage crops, but they are com- 
paratively unimportant. 

327. Forage Production in the United States. The more 
important kinds of forage are indicated in Table XIV, which 
shows the acreage, production, and value of the different 
classes of forage produced in the United States in 1909. This 
table shows that the most important class of forage is mixed 
timothy and clover hay. Next to this in acreage and pro- 
duction ranks the class, which includes wild, salt, and prairie 
hay. Timothy hay without an admixture of clover ranked 
third in acreage and production and second in value. Other 
important classes of forage are alfalfa hay, coarse forage 
(fodder and silage corn, sorghum, etc.), grains cut green for 

Table XT V. Total acreage, production, and value of hay and other 
forage in the United States, Census of 1910. 





Acres 
harvested 


Production 
(tons) 


Value 


Timothy alone 


14,675,375 

19,536,644 

2,442,836 

4,702,230 

1,113,179 

4,210,470 

16,868,374 

4,254,177 

4,093,256 

18,916 


17,972,678 
24,742,868 

3,158,840 
11,850,106 

1,539,578 

4,160,656 
18,117,043 

5,277,737 

10,073,407 

254,533 


$187,995,829 

257,215,548 

29,328,801 

93,020,739 

11,107,259 

44,375,185 
89,907,594 
61,231,873 
47,112,764 
1,180,545 


Timothy and clover mixed 
Clover alone 


Alfalfa 


Millet or Hungarian grass. . 

Other tame or cultivated 

grasses 


Wild, salt or prairie grasses 
Grains, cut green 


Coarse forage 


Root forage 




Total forage 


71,915,457 


97,147,446 


$822,476,137 





1 Red clover is ordinarily a biennial. 



256 FIELD CROPS 

hay, ''other tame grasses," and clover hay. Under the gen- 
eral term ''other tame grasses" are included all the peren- 
nial grasses other than timothy. 

The larger part of the forage is produced in the North 
Central states. This group, according to the Census classi- 
fication, extends from ^lichigan and Ohio to Kansas, Neb- 

lOWA ^i^^^^m^^^^mma^^^^mmmmm^mmi^mmmmm 8.05% 

N. T. ^mmmmma^mmmmm^^^mmammammmmmKm^m 7.26% 
MINN. mmamammmmmmmmm^^ammammmmmmt 6.22% 
KANSAS w^^^mm^^m^K^m^mmm^a^ma^^mi 6.10% 
NEB. ^ummma^a^H^aa^^mmm^^^im^mam 5.96% 
WIS. ^^mmaa^m^mmma^mmm^mmm 5.15/0 

OHIO m^amammmmmmmmmmi^^mam 4.65% 
ILLINOIS m^m^^^^^i^mammmmmm 4.48% 

CALIF. ^^^■■■■■^^^■^^■■■■1 4.45% 

MO. m^^^^^i^^mm^^^^^ 4.21% 

PENN. ^^mmmma^mmm^t^m 3.787^ 

S. DAK. ^mm^^^K^^B^^^^ 3.76% 

MICH. mmmm^mm^ma^mm^^ 3.74% 

Figure 93. — Percentage of the hay and other forage crops of the United States 
produced in each of the leading states, Census of 19 lU. 

raska, and the Dakotas. This district includes 58 per cent 
of the acreage and production and 48 per cent of the value 
of all forage crops produced in the United States. The 
leading states in the production of forage are shown graphical- 
ly in Figure 93. 

328. Uses of Forage Crops. The most important use of 
forage crops is as bulky feed for our domestic animals, either 
in succulent or dry form. Horses, cattle, and sheep are 
naturally adapted to the consumption of large quantities of 
forage, and pork can be produced most profitably when hogs 
are provided with abundant pasturage. Thus forage crops 
are very important in our farm economy. They enter more 
largely into the production of beef and milk in cattle and of 
mutton and wool in sheep, as well as of energy in horses, 
than the grains. In general, our farm animals are produced 
and maintained largely on forage, grains being used onl}^ at 
certain times, as in the fattening of sheep and cattle, when 
horses are at hard work, or when cows are producing milk. 



ESSENTIALS OF FORAGE 257 

Forage plants are also important as soil renovators, 
adding large quantities of vegetable matter to the soil in the 
form of decaying roots and stems. The perennial legumi- 
nous plants penetrate to a great depth and loosen and aerate 
the subsoil, as well as bring up plant food from greater depths 
than annual crops. A part of this plant food remains near 
the surface when the roots and stubble decay, or it is returned 
to the land in the form of manure. In this and in other ways, 
forage crops add to the fertility or improve the physical con- 
dition of the soil. Such annual crops as fodder corn and 
millet, however, draw rather heavily on the available supply 
of plant food and leave little vegetable matter behind, while 
they may injure the physical condition of the soil by reduc- 
ing the moisture supply late in the season. The grasses and 
clovers, particularly the more permanent kinds, serve as 
cover crops to prevent the washing and erosion of the soil, 
thus preventing loss of fertility. On hillsides, embankments, 
and similar locations, they thus perform a veiy valuable 
work. Certain kinds also add much to the beauty of the 
landscape and to the home surroundings in the city as well 
as in the country, by covering the earth with a carpet of 
green during the summer season. 

329. Essentials of a Forage Crop. One of the most 
important essentials of a forage crop is that it must be 
nutritious; that is, it must contain a considerable quantity 
of food for animals. Though the proportion of nutriment is 
less than in the grains, forage crops add bulk to the ration of 
ruminants, and aid in the digestion of more concentrated 
feeds. A good forage crop must also be palatable; for, no 
matter how nutritious it is, if it is not readily eaten by 
animals, it is valueless for the purpose. Some plants have a 
peculiar and offensive odor, or the stems and leaves are 
covered with hairs, or for some other reason animals do not 
eat them readily, though they may possess every other req- 
uisite of a good forage crop. Productiveness is likewise 

17— 



258 



FIELD CROPS 



Table X V. Total dry matter and digestible nutrients in 100 pounds 
of the leading forage crops, i 



Dried forage 

Corn fodder 

Corn stover 

Timothy hay 

Orchard grass 

Redtop 

Kentucky blue grass 

Johnson grass 

Oat hay 

Oat and pea hay . . . . 

Red clover 

Crimson clover 

Soy bean 

Cowpea 

Alfalfa 

Wheat straw 

Oat straw 

Green forage 

Corn silage 

Fodder corn 

Sorghum 

Pasture grass 

Kentucky blue grass 

Timothy 

Rye forage 

Oat forage 

Bermuda grass 

Hungarian millet . . . 

Red clover 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea 

Soy bean 

Field pea 

Roots, etc. 

Mangel 

Turnip 

Rutabaga 

Rape 

Concentrates 

Corn, dent 

Wheat bran 



Total dry 

matter in 

100 pounds 



Lbs. 
91.0 
90.6 
88.4 
88.4 
90.2 
86.8 
89.9 
88.0 
83.4 
87.1 
89.4 
91.4 
90.3 
91.4 
92.9 
88.5 

26.3 
21.9 

22.8 
20.0 
31.6 
37.5 
21.3 
26.1 
33.2 
27.6 
25.3 
26.2 
22.0 
27.1 
27.9 



Digestible nutrients in 100 pounds 



Crude 
protein 



9.4 


0.8 


9.5 


1.0 


10.9 


1.0 


16.7 


2.6 


89.5 


7.5 


89.9 


12.5 



Lbs. 
3.5 
2.2 
3.0 
4.7 
4.6 
4.7 
2.9 
4.5 
8.3 
7.6 
9.7 
11.7 
13.1 
10.6 
0.7 
1.0 

1.1 
1.0 
0.6 
2.5 
2.3 
1.5 
2.1 
2.3 
1.4 
1.9 
3.3 
2.7 
1.8 
2.6 
2.8 



Carbohy- 
drates 



Lbs. 
51.7 
47.8 
42.8 
41.1 
45.9 
43.5 
45.0 
38.1 
37.1 
39.3 
36.8 
39.2 
33.7 
39.0 
39.6 
42.6 

15.0 
12.8 
11.6 
10.1 
14.8 
19.3 
12.2 
11.8 
17.0 
14.8 
10.4 
13.0 
10.1 
11.0 
13.1 

6.4 
6.0 

7.7 
10.0 

67.8 
41.6 



Fat 



Lbs. 
1.5 
1.0 
1.2 
1.6 
1.2 
1.5 
1.0 
1.7 
1.5 
1.8 
1.0 
1.2 
1.0 
0.6 
0.4 
0.9 

0.7 
0.4 
0.5 
0.5 
0.6 
0.6 
0.5 
0.8 
0.5 
0.6 
0.4 
0.6 
0.6 
0.7 
0.9 

0.1 
0.2 
0.3 
0.3 

4.6 
3.0 



iThese figures are based on Henry and Morrison's Feeds and Feeding. 



FEED VALUES OF FORAGE CROPS 259 

important, for it is necessary that our forage crops yield 
well in order to obtain the largest returns from a given area 
and to support the largest possible number of animals. 

A good forage crop must have good seed habits; that is, 
the seed must be produced quite abundantly, be easily har- 
vested, and retain its germinating power reasonably well, 
in order that it may not be too expensive to justify its com- 
mon use. It must be easily eradicated when it is desirable 
to replace it with some other crop. A perennial forage 
plant to be used in meadows and pastures must be vigorous 
and hardy enough to cope successfully with weeds and other 
unfavorable conditions of growth, yet its habit of growth 
must be such that it can be destroyed readily when the land 
is plowed and planted to some other crop. A few of our 
good forage grasses are desirable in every particular except 
this, but their usefulness is largely limited on account of 
the difficulty of disposing of them when desirable. Among 
crops of this class may be mentioned quack grass, Johnson 
grass, and Bermuda grass. 

330. Comparative Feeding Values of Different Forage 
Crops. The amounts of digestible nutrients in 100 pounds of 
the more important forage plants are shown in the ac- 
companying table. These figures are presented here for pur- 
poses of comparison, and reference will be made to them 
from time to time in the pages which follow. The digestible 
nutrients in corn and in wheat bran are also presented. 

REFERENCES 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, Bailey. 

Grasses of North America, Beal. 

Farm Crops, Burkett. 

Forage and Fiber Crops in America, Hunt. 

Productive Farm Crops, Montgomery. 

Forage Crops and Their Culture, Piper. 

Farm Grasses of the United States, Spillman. 

Forage Crops, Voorhees. 

Meadows and Pastures, Wing. 



CHAPTER XI 
THE MAKING OF A MEADOW 

331. The Essentials of a Good Meadow. One of the 

first essentials of a good meadow is that it be composed of 
plants that cure readily into hay, with as little loss as possible 
of leaves and other tender parts. Slowness in curing is 
likely to result in moldy or spoiled hay, while those plants 
which become brittle 'in curing break up readily in handling 
and a large part of the best food material is lost. The 
meadow should produce a good yield of palatable and nutri- 
tious hay. The plants which compose it should be thick 
enough to keep down weeds and to prevent the stems from 
growing so coarse that they are not eaten readily by stock. 
They should form a smooth, even turf rather than a bunchy 
one, as the bunches will soon become high enough to inter- 
fere with haying machinery. The field should be fairly 
level and free from stones and other obstructions, so that the 
hay crop can be harvested readily and economically. 

332. The Formation of the Meadow. About one fourth 
of the land from which a hay crop is annually harvested is 
native meadow on which little or no attempt at improvement 
has been made. The Census of 1910 reports about seven- 
teen million acres of wild grasses cut for hay. This native 
meadow is mostly in the more newly settled portions of the 
West. In the Central and Eastern states it has largely 
been replaced by the tame grasses and clovers, a large acre- 
age of which is seeded every year for meadows and pastures. 
While specific directions for preparing the land and seeding 
will be given in the discussion of the more important meadow 
plants, some of the general principles which apply to the 
estabUshment of a meadow can best be stated here. 

260 



MAKING OF A MEADOW 261 

The land should be well prepared. Whether the grass 
seed is sown by itself or with a nurse crop, good preparation is 
essential to success. The seeds of all the grasses are small 
and many of them may fail to germinate in a poorly pre- 
pared seed bed, where they may not- be covered at all or may 
be covered too deeply. A firm, moist, mellow seed bed 
with a fine, well-prepared surface, suppHes the best condi- 
tions for germination and early growth. A smooth surface 
is also of material value when the crop is harvested, because 
haying machinery of all kinds works more easily and effec- 
tively on smooth ground than on rough. A well-prepared 
seed bed requires less seed than a poorly prepared one, for 
more of the seed will germinate. 

The land should be fertile. It is useless to attempt to 
produce a profitable crop of hay on poor land. Most soils 
contain enough fertility to produce good hay crops if the 
proper selection of grasses is made, but usually the addition 
of manure will materially increase the yield. The time when 
the manure may be applied to best advantage depends on the 
time of seeding and whether the grass seed is sown with or 
without a nurse crop. When a nurse crop is used which is 
likely to lodge from manuring, it is better to apply the 
manure to some previous crop, or to delay its appHcation 
till after the nurse crop is removed. On the other hand, if 
the meadow grasses are sown alone, a light dressing of 
manure may be plowed under with good results when the 
land is being prepared for seeding. It may also be applied 
as a top dressing after the grass seed has been sown, or any 
time later when it will not interfere with the growing crop. 
333. Sowing in Mixtures. A mixture of grasses is fre- 
quently better than any one kind alone. There are excep- 
tions to this rule, as when hay is grown for market that 
demands straight timothy or clover or alfalfa. Alfalfa 
ordinarily does better when sown alone than with any other 
plant. With most of the grasses, however, a mixture adds 



262 FIELD CROPS 

to the yield and palatability of the hay crop. The yield is 
increased, because the roots of the different plants penetrate 
to varying depths, so that more food material is available for 
all than for any one. At the same time, the portions above 
ground grow to different heights, so that they have more 
space to spread when in a mixture than when growing alone. 
The palatability of the product is increased, for animals like 
variety in their food. Care should be taken in selecting 
the different plants to make up the mixture so that all will 
be ready to cut for hay at the same time. Red clover and 
timothy do not make the best mixture, as red clover is ready 
to cut earlier than timothy, and, if left till the timothy is 
ready, the clover stems become woody and many of the 
leaves drop off. Mammoth clover, which is later than red 
clover, is much better in a mixture with timothy. 

334. Preparing the Land. The desirability of a well- 
prepared seed bed has already been stated. The method of 
preparing this seed bed varies with the soil, the locality, the 
season, and the preceding crop. A heavy soil usually requires 
more work to get it into good tilth for seeding than a loose, 
sandy one. Fertilization, either with barnyard manure or 
commercial fertilizers, may be necessary before seeding on 
the poorer lands of the South. If the land was plowed and 
put in good condition for the crop immediately preceding, 
some of this work may be omitted before sowing to grass. 

The usual practice in the North Atlantic and North 
Central states, where most of the tame grass meadows are 
located, is to sow the grass seed with some grain crop. This 
may be winter wheat in the region where that crop is grown, 
or it may be spring wheat, oats, or barley. More attention 
than usual should be devoted to the preparation of the land 
when grasses are to be sown with these grains, particularly 
in the way of fining the surface soil before the seed is sown. 
When the grasses are to be sown with winter wheat, the land 
should be plowed some weeks previous to seeding time and 



SELECTION OF SEED 263 

the seed bed prepared with the disk and smoothing harrows. 
If any of these grain crops follow corn which has been kept 
clean of weeds, a good seed bed can be prepared by disking 
two or three times and then harrowing. The corn rows 
should be leveled as much as possible in preparing the land. 
If the ground is to be plowed, deep plowing when the soil 
breaks up readily is desirable. Plowing when the soil is in 
proper condition reduces the labor necessary to obtain a 
good seed bed; fall plowing is usually preferable in the North. 
Deep plowing increases the water-holding capacity of the 
soil, and also increases the quantity of available plant food 
by making the soil more easily penetrable by the roots. 

335. Selection of the Seed. The sowing of good seed 
is fully as important in forming a meadow as in the planting 
of any of the grain crops. The seed should be true to name, 
of strong germination, and free from noxious weed seeds. 
The seeds of some of the inferior grasses closely resemble 
those of some of the important ones; for example, Canada 
blue grass seed is very similar to that of Kentucky blue grass, 
but Canada blue grass is of much less value. When there 
is any doubt about the purity of the seed, a sample should 
be submitted to the nearest seed laboratory for examination. 
The experiment stations usually make examinations of this 
kind free of charge. With a simple hand lens and samples 
of good seed, or good illustrations of them such as are easily 
obtainable, examinations for purity may readily be made 
in school or at home\ Freedom from weed seeds is equally 
as important as freedom from undesirable mixtures, as many 
of the worst weeds are often introduced in grass and clover 
seed. Avoid them by not planting them. 

336. Germination Test. As the germination of grass 
seed is often low, it is well to make a germination test of the 

^Farmers' Bulletin 428, "Testing Farm Seeds in the Home and in the Rural 
School," gives directions for testing all the more important forage crop and grain 
seeds, with illustrations of these seeds and the more common impurities which 
are found in them. Farmers' Bulletin 382, "The Adulteration of Forage-Plant 
Seeds," is also a valuable aid to the making of purity tests. 



264 



FIELD CROPS 




seed before sowing or before purchasing it in quantity. A 
simple germinator may be made from two plates and two 
pieces of blotting paper or cloth, as shown in Figure 94. The 
cloths should be dampened and a definite number of seeds, 
one hundred or two hundred, placed between them. The 
second plate should then be put on as a cover and the ger- 
minator set in a moderately warm place, where there will not 
be any marked change of temperature during the day or 
night. The germinator should be examined occasionally to 
see that the cloths do not dry out. In about ten days, the 

seeds which show strong 
germination should be 
counted and the per- 
centage of germination 
figured. If it is low, the 
seed should not be sown 
at all, or the rate of seed 
ing should be increased 
sufficiently to supply 
the proper quantity of germinable seed. No sample which 
shows a low percentage of germination or any considerable 
proportion of impurities should be purchased. It does not 
pay to buy any but the best quality of grass and clover 
seed. Cheap seed is nearly always low in germination or 
contains large quantities of foreign seeds, 

337. Time to Sow. In the Northern states, the grasses 
are usually sown in the spring with the spring grains. In the 
winter wheat belt, timothy is generally sown in the fall with 
the wheat and clover is sown very early the following spring. 
Better results may often be obtained by sowing the timothy 
and clover together without a nurse crop in August or early 
in September, after winter wheat has been harvested. The 
land can be plowed and put in good condition immediately 
after the wheat is cut, and a good seed bed will then be 
ready for seeding at the proper time. The objection to this 



Figure 94 — Plate germinator for testing small seed s 



SEEDING MEADOWS 265 

method farther north is that the clover is very Ukely to kill 
out during the winter if not sown till late in the season. In 
the South, fall seeding of grasses is usually to be preferred. 

338. Sowing with or without a Nurse Crop. While the 
plan of sowing grass seed with a grain crop is a very common 
one, the results which are obtained do not always justify 
its use. Instead of being a protection to the young plants, 
the grain crop is quite often the reverse, taking moisture from 
the soil when it is most needed. When the grain crop is 
removed, the young and tender plants which have previously 
been shaded are exposed to the full effect of the sun and wind 
and may be killed by a few hot days immediately following 
the harvesting of the grain. Little or no forage is usually 
produced by the new meadow the first fall after spring seeding 
and the hay crop produced the following year from August 
seeding is often fully as good as, if not better than, that pro- 
duced from seed sown the previous spring with a nurse crop. 
With alfalfa and some other crops a nurse crop is seldom used. 

339. Manner of Seeding. Grass seed may be sown 
broadcast by hand, with any of the ordinary broadcast 
seeders, or with a special attachment to the grain drill. The 
machine which is perhaps most generally satisfactory for 
this work is the wheelbarrow seeder. This gives an even 
distribution of the seed over the entire area, something which 
is not always easily obtained with most types of broadcast 
seeders. When sown with any of the broadcast seeders, it 
is customary to cover the seed by a light harrowing. The 
spike-tooth harrow is generally used for this work, though a 
brush harrow is sometimes employed. When clover is sown 
on winter wheat in the spring, it is not usually covered at 
all, the alternate thawing and freezing of the soil and the 
beating of the spring rains being depended on to cover the 
seed sufficiently for germination. Care should be taken 
that the seed is not covered too deep when sown with the 
grain drill. 



266 FIELD CROPS 

340. Depth to Cover the Seed. The depth to which 
grass seed should be covered is important. With small 
seeds Uke those of the grasses and clovers, the danger is in 
covering too much rather than not enough. In dry seasons 
or in sections where the rainfall is scanty, deeper covering is 
necessary than under ordinary conditions, to reach moist 
earth. Seed may be covered to a greater depth in sandy 
soils than in those of a clayey nature. The proper depth of 
covering may often be obtained by rolling the field after the 
seed is sown, though a light harrowing is usually more effec- 
tive. Covering to a depth of from one quarter of an inch 
to one inch will generally produce good results, though on 
sandy soils or in dry regions a greater depth of covering may 
be necessary. The seeds of Kentucky blue grass and many 
other grasses often germinate when they are not covered 
except by the natural movement of the soil particles. 

341. Rate of Seeding. Definite statements with regard 
to the proper rate of seeding will be made in the special dis- 
cussions of the various important hay crops, so only a few 
general rules will be given here. In mixtures, it is cus- 
tomary to sow enough of the more important grasses to give 
a full stand if the less important ones fail. The total quantity 
of seed in a mixture is usually greater than if any one of the 
constituents were sown alone. When clover and timothy 
are sown together, nearlj^ as much seed of each is sown as 
when either is sown alone. The rate of seeding must be 
increased on poorly prepared land, to allow for the consider- 
able number of seeds that will . fail to germinate. When 
sowing a field that is to be used for the production of seed, 
less seed is used than when sowing for hay production. More 
seed is usually sown on wet land than on dry, and on rich 
land than on poor. 

342. The Important Meadow Plants. The most impor- 
tant plants in American meadows are timothy and red 
clover. Alfalfa is the great hay plant of the West, and its 



CARE OF A MEADOW 2f;7 

cultivation is rapidly spreading in iiW parts of the country. 
On wet lands, redtop is an important fj;rass, and alsiko clover 
larj^(ily replaces red clover. In the South, Johnson grass is 
the most common hay grass. In the Northwest, })rome 
grass occupies a prominc^nt i)lac(^ TIh; native meadows of 
the West are made up of a larger numlxjr of spc^cies of native 
grasses, among the more im[)ortant of which arc; the wheat 
grasses. A few others are used in a limited way in some 
sections of the country, but the six or seven plants named 
above constitute the greater part of the hay which is pro- 
duced in the United States, ^'hese will })e discussed at 
length in the succ^jeding pag(;s. 

343. The Care of the Meadow. To get the best results 
from a meadow, something more is necessary than to go out 
at the proper time and harvest the hay crop. The length 
of time a field is to remain in meadow influences to some 
extent the treatment which is given to it. The ordinary 
practice in this country, except with alfalfa, is to cut but one 
or two crops of hay and then break up the sod for some annual 
crop such as corn, potatoes, or small grain. Often it is 
pastured for from one to three years and then plowed and 
planted to some one of these crops. Little attention is given 
to the maintenance of permanc^nt meadows except on land 
that is very wet or is otherwise undesirable for cultivation, 
though in England and some of the other European countries 
lands are kept continually in grass for many years. 

Attention may well be given to the meadow during 
the first season in the matter of keeping down weeds and pre- 
venting them from seeding. Fields that are seeded to grass 
with a nurse crop in the spring often grow up to ragweed and 
other pests after the nurse crop is removed. These weeds 
should be prevented from seeding by going over the field 
with a mower about the time they begin to bloom, cutting 
the stubbl(» rather high so as not to expose the roots of the 
young grass plants to the full glare of the sun's rays. Pas- 



268 FIELD CROPS 

turing new seeding is not often advisable, though it is a very 
common practice. If a rank, heavy growth is made in the 
fall, it may be pastured to some extent without injury, but 
the quantity of forage produced is usually small, and the 
hay crop of the succeeding year is often reduced materially 
by fall pasturing. Enough top growth should be left to give 
ample protection to the roots during the winter. The fall 
growth of leaves also furnishes a supply of food material to 
the roots, which is stored over winter and used in the early 
growth of the plants the following spring. If the meadow is 
closely pastured in the fall, this supply of plant food is less- 
ened, with a corresponding reduction in growth the next year. 

If the stand of grass is thin in the spring following seeding, 
it can sometimes be thickened and the yield of hay increased 
by scattering grass seed over the field and covering it with 
the smoothing harrow. If the field is to be kept in meadow 
for two years, a top-dressing of manure or of commercial 
fertilizer in the fall or winter will materially increase the 
yield the following season. If commercial fertilizer of a 
readily available nature is used, it should be put on in the 
spring rather than in the fall, or much of it will be lost by 
leaching during the winter. Disking or harrowing grass lands 
is sometimes advocated to induce a more vigorous growth, 
but this treatment is unnecessary on meadows that are 
maintained for only one or two years. 

344. Use of the Aftermath. ''Aftermath" is the term 
usually applied to the growth made by a meadow after the 
main crop of hay has been removed. This aftermath is 
utilized in various ways, for the production of hay, pasture, 
seed, and green manure. The quantity of hay produced by 
the aftermath is usually much smaller than the main crop. 
The aftermath is more generally utilized as pasture than for 
the production of hay, because the regular pastures often 
fail in the late summer, and the extra pasturage is needed. 
If the meadow is to be used for the production of hay the 



PERMANENT MEADOWS 269 

following year, the aftermath should not be pastured too 
closely. The second crop of clover is often cut for seed, 
because conditions are more generally favorable for seed 
production then than earlier in the season. If the meadow 
is to be broken up and put into some other crop the follow- 
ing year, the aftermath may often be used to best advantage 
by turning it under in the fall to add vegetable matter to the 
soil. Pasturing the meadow in the fall and then turning 
under the sod makes a double use of the fall growth, for 
much of the fertility is returned to the land in the manure, 
but the quantity of vegetable matter is slightly reduced. 

345. Permanent Meadows and Their Improvement. 
The short-term rotation is in such general use in this country 
that little attention has been given to the formatiom of per- 
manent meadows, and there is considerable question whether 
they are generally desirable. On lands which are too wet 
for cultivation, permanent meadows may often be estab- 
lished advantageously, but elsewhere, with the exception 
of alfalfa meadows, two years is about the longest time for 
which maximum yields can be expected. Insect pests and 
plant diseases can be combated much more effectively in 
a short rotation than in one in which any one crop occupies 
the land for a considerable period, and, as these troubles 
are generally present, they furnish strong reasons against the 
maintenance of permanent meadows. Where it is desirable 
to maintain a field in meadow for a number of years, special 
care should be given to the selection of long-lived grasses. 
Disking or harrowing every second or third year to prevent 
the field from becoming ''sodbound," applying well-rotted 
manure, and reseeding the bare or thin spots, will result in 
profitable yields. 

346. Place in the Rotation. The hay crop usually fol- 
lows a small grain and precedes a cultivated crop. A com- 
mon rotation in the Central states consists of two years of 
corn, one of oats, and one or two of grass. The meadow 



270 FIELD CROPS 

may then be utilized as pasture for a year or two before it 
is again broken up for corn, or corn may immediately follow. 
Where winter wheat is an important crop, it may imme- 
diately follow the breaking up of a meadow and in turn be 
followed by corn. In this case, the land is again seeded to 
grass, with a second wheat crop following the corn. A slightly 
different arrangement of this rotation is corn, wheat, 
wheat, grass. If both wheat and oats are grown, the rotation 
may be corn, oats, corn, wheat, grass, or the order of the 
wheat and oats crops may be reversed, though wheat is the 
better nurse crop. In Maine and some of the other impor- 
tant potato-growing sections, the common rotation is pota- 
toes, oats, hay. This hay crop is usually clover. (See Sec- 
tion 456). In the South and West, perennial hay crops 
other than alfalfa are so seldom grown that definite rota- 
tions have not been devised. 

LABORATORY AND FIELD EXERCISES 

Samples of seed of the common forage grasses should be obtained 
and examined for purity and germination. As soon as these seeds 
become familiar, mixtures containing two, three, or more of them 
may be separated into their component parts. At this time, all that 
need be done would be to separate the weed seeds, chaff, etc., from 
the good seed without any attempt to identify the weeds. Later, the 
different weed seeds might be identified. Several laboratory periods 
may well be devoted to this work. The student should also familiarize 
himself with the common grasses, clovers, and weeds growing in 
meadows in the neighborhood. 

REFERENCES 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, Bailey, 

Grasses of North America, Beal. 

Forage and Fiber Crops in America, Hunt. 

Productive Farm Crops, Montgomery. 

Forage Crops, and Their Culture, Piper. 

Grasses and How to Grow Them, Shaw. 

Farm Grasses of the United States, Spillman. 

Meadows and Pastures, Wing. 



CHAPTER XII 
HAY AND HAY-MAKING 

347. Principal Hay Plants. The principal perennial hay 
plants in the United States are timothy and clover in the 
North Central and Northeastern states, Johnson grass in 
the South, and alfalfa in Kansas, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and 
the Rocky Mountain and Pacific states. Among other 
perennial hay plants which are grown in more or less hmited 
areas are redtop, orchard grass, brome grass, western wheat 
grass, and alsike clover. Numerous annual plants are also 
grown for hay, including foxtail millet, field peas, cowpeas, 
soy beans, wheat, rye, barley, oats, and hairy vetch. Any 
of these plants may be grown alone, or they may be grown 
in various mixtures of two or more. 

348. Production of Hay in the United States. The 
greater part of the hay grown in the United States is pro- 
duced in the Northeastern and North Central states. The 
Western states are coming to be of considerable importance 
as producers of hay, largely through the general use of alfalfa 
on irrigated land, with its high yield per acre. New York 
produces nearly one tenth of the annual hay crop of the 
country, while New York, Iowa, and Pennsylvania, the three 
leading states, show an average annual yield of about one 
fourth of the entire crop of the United States. The pro- 
duction of hay is, however, more generally distributed than 
that of any of the cereal crops except corn. 

The annual production of hay in the United States for 
the ten years from 1908 to 1917, as reported by the Bureau 
of Statistics, averaged 72,669,000 tons, grown on 50,424,000 
acres and valued at $871,015,000. This is slightly more than 
the average annual value of either the cotton or the wheat 

271 



272 



FIELD CROPS 



crop for a like period, though both these crops have some- 
times exceeded hay in value. The average annual acreage, 
production, and value of the hay crop in the ten leading 
states and in the United States during the five years from 
1913 to 1917 are shown in Table XVI, while the percentage 
of the crop produced in each of the leading states is shown 
graphically in Figure 95. 

Table XVI. Average acreage, production, and farm value of hay 
in each of the ten leading states and in the United States, during 
the five years from 1913 to 1917, inclusive. 



State 


Acreage 


Yield 
per acre 


Production 


Farm value 
Dec. 1 


New York 

Iowa 


Acres 

4,508,000 
3,162,000 
2,502,000 
3,140,000 
2,561,000 
2,922,000 
2,506,000 
3,036,000 
2,600,000 
1,568,000 
23,184,000 


Tons 

1.34 
1.50 
1.78 
1.40 
1.70 
1.37 
1.39 
1.05 
1.21 
1.87 
1.60 


Tons 

6,038,000 
4,946,000 
4,536,000 
4,409,000 
4,367,000 
4,019,000 
3,440,000 
3,254,000 
3,118,000 
3,023,000 
37,015,000 


Dollars 

80,994,000 
49,944,000 


California 

Pennsylvania; . . 

Wisconsin 

Ohio. 

Michigan 

Missouri 

Illinois 

Nebraska 

All others 


57,035,000 
67,079,000 
51,921,000 
54,629,000 
44,210,000 
38,952,000 
44,710,000 
24,902,000 
460,116,000 


United States . . 


51,689,000 


1.51 


78,165,000 


974,442,000 



The Bureau of Crop Estimates reports only the hay pro- 
duction and does not report coarse forage. When this is 
taken into consideration, the rank in production is Iowa, 
New York, Minnesota^ Kansas, and Nebraska. 

349. Acre Yield and Value. The heaviest yields of hay 
to the acre are obtained in the irrigated states of the West 
and Southwest. The principal hay crop grown in these 
states is alfalfa, of which several cuttings are made each 
year. The average acre yield of hay for the five years from 
1913 to 1917 in Arizona was 3.52 tons; in Nevada, 2.86 tons; 
and in Idaho, 2.75 tons. In the states of largest production 
the average annual yield ranges from 1.25 to 1.50 tons to the 



TIWIE TO CUT HAY 273 

acre. The same range is quite general in the South. Much 
larger yields may be produced, however, when special atten- 
tion is given to the hay crop. 

The average acre value of hay for the five years from 
1913 to 1917 was higher in Arizona than in any other state, 
S48.96;or about $15.00 a ton. The lowest acre value was 

N. Y. ^— ^^MI ^M^M^II^I^— IM 7.7% 

IOWA wmm^mmmmm^mmmmKmmmm^m^Km 6.3% 

CAL. ^"^^^—i^— 1^^ — l^M 5.8% 

PA. "i^^^ — ^"^iM^— ■ 5.6% 

WIS. M^— ^M^W^H^l^^B^ 5.6% 

omo ^^—i^ —— i— ■— 5.1% 

MICH. ^— ^l^ —— l^l^ 4.4% 

MO. W^^— — ^^I^^Ml 4.2% 

ILL- M^BH^^Hj^^^HBB 4.0% 

NEB. ^i^lHBH^i^HB 3.8% 

Figure 95. — Graph showing percentage of the total hay crop of the United States 
produced in the ten leading states during the five years from 1913 to 
1917, inclusive. 

that of North Dakota $8.60. The acre value in New York 
was $19.33 and in Iowa, $15.77. The difference between 
these two states was due entirely to the higher price per ton 
in New York, as the acre yield is less than that in Iowa. 

350. Time to Cut. For the best quality of hay, the crop 
should be cut when the plants are in bloom. The grasses 
usually increase in weight and in total feeding value up to 
the time the seed begins to ripen, but they decrease in pal- 
atability and digestibility after the blooming stage is past. 
Probably the largest quantity of digestible food material 
can be obtained from hay made up largely of the grasses, 
if they are not cut until about the time they go out of bloom. 
On the other hand, the clovers and alfalfa must be cut some- 
what earlier, or manj^ of the leaves will be lost in curing 
and the feeding value will be considerably decreased. When 
red clover and timothy are grown together, the clover comes 
into bloom some days earHer than the timothy, and it is 
necessary to cut the crop when the clover is rather mature 

and before the timothy has reached its best state. Other- 
is— 



274 FIELD CROPS 

wise, the decrease in value of the clover will more than equal 
any gain there may be from the timothy. Where the acre- 
age to be harvested is large, it is necessary to begin cutting 
before the crop has reached the best stage in order to com- 
plete the work before a part of it becomes overripe. 




Figure 96. — A good crop of hay roiidy to he hauled to the barn. The hay 
loader which takes the hay from the avvath or windrow is Renerally used 
in large meadows. It is not then necessary to place the hay in cocks as 
shown here. 

Whenever possible, hay should be cut when there is 
prospect of good drying weather until it can be put in the 
mow or stack. Conditions frequently make this difficult, 
but the best quality of hay can be made only when there is 
the least possible exposure to th(^ weather. Hay that is 
fairly mature can often be cut in the morning and put in 
the stack or mow in the afternoon. Discoloration from dew 
and consequent lowering in market value are thus avoided. 
The same result can often be obtained by cutting late in 
the afternoon, so that the grass is still green and full of 
moisture when the dew falls. It will not then be discolored, 
and, with the exception of accidental conditions, will cure 



METHOD OF CUTTING HAY 275 

earlier in the day than hay that is not cut till the following 
morning. 

351. Method of Cutting. Practically all the hay in the 
United States is now cut with the mower, though small 
acreages of swampy or rocky land in New England and else- 
where are cut with the scythe. Ordinary mowers cut swaths 
from 5 to 7 feet wide. One-horse mowers are made which cut 
a 3}/2 or 4-foot swath, but usually two horses are used with 
a machine cutting 5 or 6 feet in width. Cutting a swath more 
than 6 feet wide is hard work for two horses, and it is also 
difficult to keep long cutter bars in line. 

352. Curing. The length of time required to cure a crop 
sufficiently for storing depends on the stage of maturity of 
the crop, the particular plant or plants which are to be made 
into hay, the yield, and the weather conditions. No general 
rules can be laid down. The point is to get the hay dry 
enough for storing with the least possil)le loss of food value 
and palatability. The food value may be reduced by wash- 
ing by rains, by bleaching from rains or dews, by the loss 
of leaves and other tender parts when the crop is too mature 
or too dry for handling, and by the molding or rotting of the 
hay. Curing in the windrow or in the cock is desirable in 
order to prevent much loss of leaves, particularly in clover 
and alfalfa hay. Clover hay should not be handled more 
than is absolutely necessary after it is cured. 

The use of modern machinery, such as side-delivery rakes 
and the hay loader, does away entirely with the cock, for the 
hay is taken up directly from the swath or the small windrow. 
This plan is often necessary on account of the scarcity of 
labor, but it is generally followed at a sacrifice in the quahty 
of the hay. Curing partially in the swath and then raking 
it into cocks, which should be rounded up with a fork, if 
there is danger of rain, will give the best quahty of hay. If 
hay of particularly high quality is desired in humid sections, 
the cocks should be covered with canvas covers. 



276 



FIELD CROPS 




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ATS ^ 
O fl ^ 
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03 O TO 

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HAYING MACHINERY 



277 



353. Haying Machinery. Haying tools form a con- 
siderable part of the equipment of the farm. There is the 
mower, with which to cut the grass; the tedder, for stirring 
heavy hay in the swath to facilitate its curing; the rake, 
either of the hand-dump or self-dump type to gather the 
cured hay into windrows and then into cocks, or the side- 
deUvery type which makes a continuous windrow, thus 




Figure 98. — Putting hay into the mow by means of slings. In this way, a load 
of hay can be put into the barn in a few minutes. This barn has a large 
mow capacity. 

facilitating the use of the hay loader; the hay loader for 
taking the hay from the swath or windrow and depositing 
it on the wagon; and various arrangements of hayforks, 
slings, poles, tracks, pulleys, etc., for unloading the hay 
from the wagon to the mow or stack. 

354. Storing. When the hay is properly cured, it should 
be placed as quickly as possible in some permanent place 
for storage. This may be in the mow of a barn, under a 
shed-roof built specially for protecting hay from the weather, 
or in a stack in the open. When the hay is to be fed on the 
farm and storage room can be provided in the barn without 
much expense, it should be placed there. It is then pro- 
tected from loss by exposure to the weather and is con- 
veniently located -for feeding. If any quantity is to be stored 



278 FIELD CROPS 

in the barn, a track and carrier should be placed in the peak 
of the roof and provision made for unloading by horse power. 
When the mow does not afford sufficient storage room, 
particularly when the hay is to be sold rather than fed, a 
specially constructed hayshed may be useful. This con- 
sists of a set of posts covered with a roof, under which the 
hay is stored. If desired, the sides and ends may be enclosed ; 
but this is not essential, as there will be little loss from 
weathering if the sides of the pile of hay are kept straight, 
so that rain and snow cannot penetrate. Where there is an 
abundance of hay and insufficient storage space under cover, 
stacking in the open is necessary. Where a number of loads 
are to be put into one stack, unloading is facilitated if a set 
of poles or derricks is used and the hay is unloaded with 
horses. Small stacks expose relatively more surface to the 
weather than large ones, and a greater proportion of the hay 
is injured by weathering. 

355. Baling. If hay is to be sold for shipment, it is com- 
pressed into bales of from 100 to 200 pounds. The ordinary 
bale averages about 100 pounds in weight. Hay in the stack 
or mow occupies from 350 to 500 cubic feet to the ton, de- 
pending very largely on the height of the stack, the kind 
of hay, and the length of time it has settled. Baled hay 
occupies from 100 to 150 cubic feet to the ton. Baling 
presses are of various kinds, and the pressure is applied in 
various ways. The power for pressing is generally supplied 
by a sweep drawn by horses, though a steam or gasoline 
engine may be substituted. A bale of hay is ordinarily 
about 16 by 18 by 40 inches, though both smaller and larger 
bales are made. The bale is bound with wire. Baling is 
not generally done until some weeks or months after the 
hay crop is harvested, usually during the winter when there 
is little other farm work. 

356. Measuring Hay. As has previously been stated, 
a ton of hay occupies from 350 to 500 cubic feet. The vol- 



MARKET CLASSES OF HAY 279 

ume of a mow can usually be figured quite readily, but it is 
much more difficult to estimate the contents of a stack. Nu- 
merous rules^ have been proposed, but none of them is very 
accurate, while they all involve considerable figuring. 
The number of cubic feet in a ton of hay varies so greatly 
with the kind of hay, the length of time it has stood in the 
stack, and the height of the stack, that it is very difficult 
to get a rule which will fit all conditions. As a usual thing, 
the rules are more favorable to the buyer than to the seller, 
as they underestimate rather than overestimate the number 
of tons in the stack or mow. The most satisfactory method 
of selling hay, wherever possible, is by weight. 

357. Market Classes of Hay. The standard hay on all 
markets is timothy. Other grades depend largely on the 
price of timothy hay and the quantity of the different grades 
which are available. The rules for grading timothy hay 
adopted by the National Hay Association are as follows : 

Choice timothy hay. — Shall be timothy not mixed with over one 
twentieth other grasses, properly cm-ed, bright natural color, sound, 
and well-baled. 

No. 1 timothy hay. — Shall be timothy with not more than one 
eighth mixed with clover or other tame grasses, properly cured; good 
color, sound, and well-baled. 

No. 2 timothy hay. — Shall be timothy not good enough for No. 1, 
not over one fourth mixed with clover or other tame grasses, fair color, 
sound, and well-baled. 

No. 3 timothy hay. — Shall include all hay not good enough for 
other grades, sound, and well-baled. 

No-grade hay. — Shall include all hay badly cured, stained, threshed 
or in any way unsound. 

Other grades of hay recognized by the National Hay 
Association include light. No. 1 and No. 2 clover mixed 
hay; No. 1 and No. 2 clover hay; choice. No. 1, No. 2, and 
No. 3 prairie hay; No. 1 and No. 2 midland hay; and choice, 
No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3 alfalfa hay; as well as several grades 
which include hay of very low quality. 

iFor methods of determining the contents of hay in mows, ricks, and stacks 
see Agricultural Arithmetic by Shutts and Weir. 



280 FIELD CROPS 

LABORATORY AND FIELD EXERCISES 

An afternoon spent in visiting some of the hay mows, feed stores, 
or hay stacks in the neighborhood and studying the different types of 
hay, their quahty and other characteristics, may be made very instruc- 
tive. In the late spring or early summer, a visit might also be made 
to several hay meadows to study the grasses of which they are com- 
posed, the prevalence of weeds, and other factors which influence the 
quahty of the product. 

REFERENCES 

Forage and Fiber Crops in America, Hunt. 
Forage Crops and Their Culture, Piper. 
Grasses and How to Grow Them, Shaw. 
Farm Grasses of the United States, Spillman. 
Forage Crops, Voorhees. 
Meadows and Pastures, Wing. 
Farmers' Bulletins: 

362. Conditions Affecting the Value of Market Hay. 

508. Market Hay. 

677. Growing Hay in the South for Market. 

838. Harvesting Hay with the Sweep Rake. 

943. Haymaking. 

956. Curing Hay on Trucks. 



CHAPTER XIII 
PASTURES 

358. The Importance of Pastures. The acreage of 
improved farm lands, according to the Census of 1910, was 
about 477,000,000 acres. Of this, something Hke 145,000,- 
000 acres was pasture land, more than was devoted to any 
one harvested crop, even slightly exceeding corn. The total 
area in range, mountain, and improved pasture land per- 
haps considerably exceeds one billion acres, though this 
figure is necessarily a very rough estimate (Section 325). 
It is impossible to estimate accurately the annual value of 
this pasture, but there is no doubt that it is greater than that 
of any of the harvested crops. A valuation of $1.50 an acre 
for the annual product of this land would aggregate as much 
as the annual value of the corn crop in normal times. 

359. The Essentials of a Good Pasture. A good pasture 
should start into growth early in the season and should con- 
tinue to produce feed till late in the fall. The growth of 
grasses should be fine rather than coarse, and the product of 
the pasture should be both palatable and nutritious. The 
yield should be abundant in order to furnish profitable 
returns. The plants which compose it should form a close 
turf which is not readily injured by tramping or close grazing. 

360. The Formation of a Pasture. In the making of a 
pasture, about the same care is required as in the making of 
a meadow, though it is not so necessary to have the ground 
smooth and level. The plants which go into the making of 
a pasture should be as carefully chosen, and it is as important 
to have good seed, free from weeds and other impurities. 
Weeds materially reduce the value of a pasture, by occupy- 
ing space which should be available for better plants, by 

281 



282 FIELD CROPS 

causing stock to leave the grasses which grow near them, 
and sometimes by actual injury to the stock or some portion 
of their products. Thus wild barley is injurious, as the 
beards cause soreness of the mouths and jaws of stock which 
eat the mature heads; weeds which produce burs injure the 
wool of sheep, making it more difficult to clean for market 
and reducing its market value; weeds with a strong odor, 
like the wild onion, affect the quality of milk and butter; 
and some weeds are poisonous to stock. 

In the more thickly settled portions of the United States, 
the pastures are usually meadows which have become more 
or less unproductive, or low lands which are not adapted to 
the production of harvested crops. The general practice is 
to harvest one or two crops of hay from a meadow and then 
pasture it for a year or more before breaking it up for har- 
vested crops. The objection to this plan is that the plants 
which make the best hay, usually timothy and red clover, 
are not particularly good pasture plants. While the plan 
is fairly satisfactory for a year or two, something else must 
be used if a permanent pasture is desired. 

If a pasture is to be started which is to be more or less 
permanent, some grasses should be included in the mixture 
which will give quick returns, and others which will come on 
later and continue to produce pasturage in later years. It 
is not usually advisable to turn stock on a new pasture until 
the sod has become firmly established, usually during the 
second season of its growth. More seed should be sown for 
making a pasture than for a meadow. 

361. Important Pasture Plants. The most important 
pasture plants of the region from Virginia northward to the 
Canadian boundary and westward to Missouri, Iowa, and 
Minnesota, are Kentucky blue grass and white clover. 
These two plants come in on old meadows and in pastures 
almost spontaneously, and it is seldom necessary to sow them. 
If a mixture is sown especially for use as pasture, some seed 



IMPR YEMEN T OF PAS TURE8 283 

of each of these plants should be included, but the quantity 
need not be large unless the location is one where they are 
not common. Brome grass is also a good pasture plant in 
this section, and is much relished by stock. Its range of 
usefulness extends westward into the dry sections of Nebraska 
and the Dakotas. Its use is restricted, because it is difficult 
to obtain seed free from quack grass. In the South, Bermuda 
grass is the great pasture plant, though lespedeza, or Japan 
clover, is also important. In the Great Plains and Rocky 
Mountain states, the native grasses make up practically 
all the pastures, and for the most part are more hardy and 
nutritious than any introduced plants. Alfalfa is used as 
pasture in a Hmited way. In various portions of the country, 
annual pasture plants are sown to some extent. 

362. Improving a Native Pasture. A native pasture, 
especially in the Eastern and Central states, may often be 
materially improved by proper treatment and care. Where 
the ground is rough and there are many hummocks, the use 
of the disk and smoothing harrows will help to level it and 
aid in the production of a better stand and more uniform 
growth. Brush pastures may be improved by removing all 
or a part of the brush by clearing, firing or pasturing with 
goats. The latter is perhaps the most economical method, 
as the goats will clear out the brush and at the same time 
bring in some return. Disking or harrowing pastures to 
loosen the surface soil, and then sowing small quantities of 
seed of good pasture plants such as Kentucky blue grass or 
white clover, will increase the productiveness of native 
pastures. Clipping with the mower to prevent weeds from 
seeding is also a good practice. 

363. The Management of Pastures. In the popular 
mind, pastures need no care or management. All that is 
necessary is to turn the stock on in the spring, and the pas- 
tures will take care of themselves. If a particularly unfavor- 
able season follows, or if the number of stock is too great for 



284 FIELD CROPS 

the pasture, it may be necessary in August or September to 
supplement it with feed from outside, or the stock may be 
turned on the grain stubble or the meadows to pick whatever 
growth may be there. In some instances this may be a wise 
practice, but in general it does not seem to be, as the young 
seeding or the meadow may be damaged more than the stock 
will be benefited. It is desirable to have rather more pasture 
than the stock will utilize in a favorable season, or to be able 
to supplement the permanent pasture with annual plants 
on which stock may be turned or which may be cut for feed- 
ing green. Rotation grazing is sometimes recommended. 
By this plan, two pastures are maintained on one of which 
stock grazes for three or four weeks while the other is allowed 
to grow; then, when the first pasture becomes rather short, 
the stock is turned into the second and the first is allowed to 
recuperate. Good pasturage is thus furnished with no more 
land than would be required for a single pasture which 
would give less satisfactory service. 

364. Renovating Old Pastures. The pastures of the 
Northeastern and North Central states are usually in part 
the low, wet lands of the farm which cannot profitably be 
brought under cultivation. The grasses which grow on this 
land are not usually so palatable or nutritious as those which 
thrive on the higher, better-drained land which is usually 
devoted to harvested crops. One of the first and best means 
of renovating or improving pastures is to provide thorough 
drainage. Underdrainage with tile is usually the most 
satisfactory and permanent method of removing surplus 
water from the land. When this extra supply of water is 
removed, air can penetrate the soil, and better kinds of 
grasses will grow on it. Clovers and grasses often thrive on 
well-drained land which would not grow there before the 
drainage was supphed. In many other districts beside those 
mentioned, drainage is one of the prime factors in improv- 
ing pasture lands. 



RENOVATING OLD PASTURES 285 

The best pastures, those on which white clover and 
Kentucky blue grass thrive, contain an abundance of lime. 
All the legumes and many of the grasses grow best where 
there is plenty of lime. Another step, then, in renovating 
pastures, is to supply lime, particularly to those which have 
recently been underdrained. The lime can best be added 
by scattering finely ground limestone over the pasture early 
in the spring at the rate of two tons to the acre. Lime may 
also be appled in the ordinary commercial form, air-slaked, 
at the rate of one ton to the acre, but this is usually more 
expensive than the ground limestone. Soils on which blue 
grass and the clovers grow freely do not need lime, as their 
presence indicates an abundance of this element. 

Disking and harrowing old pastures will often aid in 
inducing new growth by loosening the surface soil and break- 
ing up a sodbound condition which may have resulted from 
years of continuous trampling by stock. If seed of good 
pasture grasses is sown at this time, the growth of the pas- 
ture will be still further improved. While much of the 
manure is returned to the land when it is pastured, the addi- 
tion of more manure will cause a more luxuriant growth of 
grass. The use of commercial fertilizers, particularly those 
which are rich in phosphorus, such as ground bone, is some- 
times advisable. 

Range pastures which have become scanty from over- 
pasturing may be greatly improved by pasturing lightly for 
a year or two, allowing the native grasses to mature and 
reseed. There is no better or more efficient means of im- 
proving range pastures than this. Location of the pastures 
so as to allow the stock to graze on one for a time and 
then on another, will result in the production of more 
pasturage from the acreage than if the entire area is grazed 
continuously. This rotation allows the formation of some 
seed from time to time and thus aids in the renewal of the 
stand of useful grasses. It is seldom practical to sow grass 



286 FIELD CROPS 

seed on these pastures, because the acreage is so large, and 
it is often difficult to obtain seed of the native grasses which 
compose them. The cultivated grasses of which seed can 
be obtained cheaply usually do not grow so well under range 
conditions as the native kinds. 

LABORATORY AND FIELD EXERCISES 

1 , Visits to pastures in the neighborhood, with careful studies of the 
plants of which they are composed, the prevalence of weeds, and such 
other points as appear to be important, may be made with profit. The 
best time to make these studies is late in the spring or early in the fall. 

2. Make parallel lists of as many things as you can think of 
that contribute to a good pasture and what things should be avoided. 
In a third column list the ways in which good pasture is useful. 

REFERENCES 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, Bailey. 

Forage and Fiber Crops, Hunt. 

Field Crop Production, Livingston. ^ 

Forage Crops and Their Culture, Piper. 

Grasses and How to Grow Them, Shaw. 

Farm Grasses of the United States, Spillman. 

Forage Crops, Voorhees. 

Meadows and Pastures, Wing. 



CHAPTER XIV 
THE GRASSES 

365. What the Grasses Are. In much of the preceding 
discussion of forage crops, the term "grasses" has been used 
in the ordinary sense of common farm usage, as including all 
hay and pasture plants, whether they are true grasses, 
legumes, or a mixture of both classes of plants. In this and 
the succeeding chapters the term will be used in its more 
limited sense, as referring only to the true grasses, the mem- 
bers x)f the Gramineae^ or grass family, excluding foom it the 
legumes, such as clover and alfalfa. The true grasses are 
among our most common plants. The number of species is 
very great, especially in tropical countries; several hundred 
are native to the United States. In temperate regions, the 
number of individual plants of the grasses is much greater 
proportionally than the number of species, large areas often 
being covered with a solid mat or turf of one or more species 
of grass. The grass family is the most important natural 
group of plants. It includes not only the pasture and mead- 
ow plants to which the term is commonly applied, but also 
the cereals, which supply a very large part of the food of 
men and animals. Among the more important of the forage 
grasses in the United States are timothy, Kentucky blue 
grass, redtop, orchard grass, Bermuda grass, Johnson grass, 
brome grass, and the native wheat grasses. 

366. General Characters. Most of the grasses are com- 
paratively short, herbaceous annuals or perennials, though a 
few, such as the bamboos of the tropical regions, assume 
shrub or tree forms. The stems are generally hollow; the 
nodes, or joints, are always solid. This construction of 
the stem allows the plant to stand considerable strain from 

287 



288 FIELD CROPS 

wind and rain without injury. The base of the leaf forms 
a sheath around the stem, which further strengthens it; the 
sheath is usually split to the base on the side opposite the 
blade. A thin, hard ring, called the hgule, forms the junc- 
tion of the blade and the sheath, clasping the stem, or culm, 
and acting as a guard against the entrance of rain or dust to 
the inside of the sheath. 

The flowers are borne in spikes or panicles, made up of 
spikelets of two or more bracts, or scales. They consist 
of from one to three very small scales, from one to six 
stamens, and a one-celled ovary, usually with two styles. 
The flowers may, however, be imperfect, as in the case of 
the tassel flowers of corn, which have no pistils. The stigmas 
are hairy or plume-like, and the anthers are attached at or 
near their middles to the filaments, so that they swing freely 
in every breeze. The fruit is a caryopsis, the seed or grain 
being enclosed in a membrane which adheres closely to it. 

367. Differences. The grasses, though they have many 
characters in common, are quite variable. In height, they 
vary from a few inches, as in the case of many of our native 
prairie grasses, to several feet, as in corn and sorghum, while 
some of the bamboos grow to the height of large trees. The 
stems may be hollow, as in wheat or oats, or filled with pith, 
as in corn. A large proportion of the leaves may be produced 
at or near the base of the stem, making the grass valuable 
for pasture, or many of the leaves may be borne on upright 
stems, the plant then being suitable for hay. The flowers 
may be perfect, as in wheat; monoecious, as in corn; or 
dioecious, as in the buffalo grass of the western prairies. 
They may be borne in close spikes, as in timothy; in loose 
spikes, as in wheat or rye; or in panicles, as in oats or red- 
top. The plants may be annuals, as oats; winter annuals, 
as winter wheat; or perennials, as timothy, brome grass or 
blue grass. The habit of growth may vary greatly, from the 
erect form of timothy to the creeping habit of buffalo grass 



IMPORTANCE OF GRASSES 289 

and the bent grasses. The leaves may be numerous at the 
base of the stem and sparing above, or they may be small 
and scanty at the base and more numerous along the stem. 
The roots may be bulbous, as in timothy, or fibrous, as in 
the annual species and many of the perennial ones. 

368. Why the Grasses Are Important. The grasses are 
of great importance in our agriculture; for they supply, in 
addition to the cereal grains, a very large part of the forage 
which is fed to domestic animals. This forage may be in 
the .form of green herbage, either as pasture or for soiUng; 
preserved green herbage, or silage; or dried herbage, as hay, 
straw, or fodder. A feature of the grasses which makes 
them valuable pasture plants is the location of the growing 
point of the leaf. This is near the base, so that the tip may 
be grazed or clipped off several times and the leaf still con- 
tinue to grow. The forage grasses add variety to the rota- 
tion, supplying crops which may be used as meadows or 
pastures, or short-season crops such as millet, which may 
be used to occupy the land when an earlier-planted crop fails. 
The perennial varieties add a mass of vegetable matter to 
the soil. They thus improve its physical condition and their 
decay increases the yield of annual crops which follow. They 
also form a cover which prevents the loss of fertility by wash- 
ing and other means of erosion. 

369. Comparative Value of Different Species. The 
various meadow and pasture grasses differ httle so far as the 
feeding value of their products is concerned. They contain 
about the same quantities of the important food elements, 
and these elements are about as digestible in one grass or 
hay as in another. There is naturally some difference in 
this respect among the many species, but there is likely to 
be as much variation between samples of any one of the 
important grasses when grown under different soil and ch- 
matic conditions or when cut at different stages of growth. 
There is a very decided variation also in the digestibility of 

19— 



290 FIELD CROPS 

the same grass when cut at different stages for hay, the 
maximum of digestible food material usually being present 
at about the time the grass is in bloom or a little later. 

While there is comparatively little difference in food 
value among the grasses, there is a great variation in palata- 
bility. Thus, Kentucky blue grass and brome grass are 
among our most palatable pasture grasses, while timothy 
makes hay which ranks high in this regard. Redtop is less 
palatable as pasture than Kentucky blue grass, and less as 
hay than timothy. Velvet grass, which contains as much 
food material as timothy, is not eaten by stock on account of 
the numerous hairs on the stems and leaves. Other grasses 
are unpalatable for other reasons. Different animals vary 
somewhat as to their choice of the grasses, so that some 
grasses that are highly palatable to cattle, for instance, may 
be less so to sheep. The soil and the proportion of the dif- 
ferent elements of plant food which it contains also seem to 
have some influence on palat ability. 

REFERENCES 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II Bailey. 

Farm Crops, Burkett. 

Field Crop Production, Livingston. 

Forage and Fiber Crops in America, Hunt. 

Productive Farm Crops. Montgomery. 

Grasses and How to Grow Them, Shaw. 

Farm Grasses of the United States, Spillman. 

Meadows and Pastures, Wing. 



CHAPTER XV 
PERENNIAL GRASSES 

TIMOTHY 

370. Origin. Timothy, Phleum pratense, is a native of 
Europe. Its cultivation in this country dates from about 
1700. Timothy Hansen first grew this grass in Maryland, 
where it was known as Timothy's grass, and later as timothy. 
There has been little change in timothy since it was first 
cultivated, and only in the last few years have attempts been 
made to improve it or to separate it into varieties. Even 
now, it is not possible to purchase seed of any distinct variety 
of timothy, though there is great variation among the plants. 
The same statement may be made with equal truth regard- 
ing all the other forage grasses and most of the leguminous 
forage plants. In fact, many of them are little more than 
plants brought in from the wild, with no effort at improve- 
ment. There is much to be accomphshed in the breeding of 
forage crops for special purposes, and great increases in yields 
of hay or pasture may be confidently expected from careful 
work of this kind. 

371. Description. Timothy is a rather deep-rooting 
perennial grass, with stems, or culms, ranging from 6 or 8 
inches to 6 feet high. The usual height is from 23^ to 4 
feet. The culms are usually straight, but they may be bent 
or prostrate at the base. The lower node of the culm is en- 
larged, forming a sort of bulb, a character pecuUar to this 
plant among the grasses. The culm leaves are much more 
numerous than the basal leaves, making the plant valuable 
for hay. The leaves are from 3 to 10 inches long, and from a 
quarter to a half inch wide. The flowers are borne in a long, 
close spike, usually cylindrical in form, from one and a half 

291 



292 



FIELD CROPS 



to six inches in length and a quarter to a third of an inch in 
diameter. This spike is made up of many one-flowered 
spikelets. The seed is about one twelfth of an inch long, 
silvery gray in color, and usually loosely enclosed in the 

palea and flowering glume. It 
is easily removed from them in 
threshing and cleaning, however, 
and many of the seeds are com- 
monly without a covering. 

372. Importance. In the 
Northeastern and North Cen- 
tral states, timothy is the most 
important meadow grass, and 
it is also largely used as past- 
ure. It is of more or less im- 
portance all over the country 
except in the extreme South. 
No other grass compares with it 
in importance as a hay grass. 
Other kinds of hay are sold to 
some extent, but timothy is the 
standard. Out of a total area 
of 72,000,000 acres devoted to 
the production of hay and other 
forage in the United States in 
1909, according to the Census 
reports, timothy alone was grown on 14,675,000 acres, and 
timothy and clover mixed on 19,536,000 acres. The only 
other class of hay and forage which compared at all with 
timothy in acreage was the combination of all wild, salt, 
and prairie grasses, which totaled 16,868,000 acres. The 
production of timothy hay amounted to 17,973,000 tons; of 
timothy and clover mixed, 24,743,000 tons; and of wild, salt, 
and prairie grasses, 18,117,000 tons. The estimated average 
value per ton in the United States in 1917 was $18.33. 




Figure 99. — A head of timothy, the 
most common tame grass of the 
United States. 



GRASS SOILS AND FERTILIZERS 



293 



373. Soils and Fertilizers. Timothy grows best on clay 
loam soils which are retentive of moisture, though it thrives 
on quite a variety of soils. It grows better in moist climates 
then in dry ones, and on fertile loams than on sandy soils. 
It does not grow well on very acid soils, redtop being a much 
better grass for such locations. The liberal use of stable 
manure will greatly increase the yield of timothy, while the 
plowing under of a 
leguminous crop be- 
fore sowing, or the use 
of nitrogenous fertiliz- 
ers also produces a 
heavier growth. In 
fact, some benefit is 
derived from the ni- 
trogen stored in the 
soil by leguminous 
crops, such as clover, 
which grow with the 
timothy. Phosphate 
fertilizer is also productive of a good response. 

374. Seed and Seeding. Timothy seed weighs from 42 
to 50 pounds to the bushel, according to its cleanness from 
hulls. The legal weight in most states is 45 pounds. The 
usual rate of seeding is from 8 to 12 pounds to the acre, 
though 15 pounds is sometimes sown. When sown with 
clover, 7 to 10 pounds of timothy is sown with from 5 to 8 
pounds of clover. Good, clean seed of a high percentage of 
germination should be used. Timothy seed is less subject 
to adulteration than the seed of many of the other grasses 
and clovers. Redtop, orchard grass, and other grass seeds 
are sometimes found in it, but usually in small quantities 
only. The seed is best sown with a broadcast seeder of the 
wheelbarrow type, though any of the common methods are 
generally satisfactory. A light harrowing after seeding will 




Figure 100. — Seeds of timothy; a, with husk, 
enlarged; b, husk removed, enlarged; c, nat- 
ural size. 



294 FIELD CROPS 

cover the seed to a sufficient depth. In the winter wheat 
region, timothy is generally sown in the fall with that grain; 
farther north, it is sown in the spring with spring grain. 
When sown with grain, a special seeding attachment on the 
drill is sometimes used. Of recent years, July and August 
seeding without a nurse crop is in favor in some sections. 
As the seed is small, it should not be covered too deeply; a 
half inch is usually sufficient except in dry seasons. 

375. Care of the Meadow. The habit of growth of 
timothy makes it particularly adapted to use as a hay grass. 
The meadow should not be pastured if the largest yields of 
hay are desired. The bulbs produced at the base of the 
culms are pulled up and eaten by stock, particularly during 
dry seasons when the growth of the grass is slow. These 
bulbs are also injured by the trampling of stock, so that 
very frequently, especially on new meadows, more is lost 
in damage to the succeeding crop of hay than is gained from 
the use of the pasture. In dry, hot weather, timothy should 
be cut with rather long stubble to avoid injury to the bulbs. 
The application of a top-dressing of stable manure in the 
spring or after the hay crop has been removed will greatly 
increase succeeding crops. Best results will be obtained 
from the use of this manure if it is scattered evenly over the 
meadow with a manure spreader. 

376. Making Hay. Timothy hay is most readily eaten 
by cattle if it is cut when in bloom; horses prefer it if cut a 
few days after it goes out of bloom. As the quantity of 
dry matter produced on an acre increases up to the time the 
seed begins to ripen, it is probable that the larger yield of 
food material can be obtained by late rather than by early 
cutting. When a large acreage is to be harvested, cutting 
should begin when the plants come into blossom, in order 
to complete the work before the seed is ripe, for the stems 
become dry and woody and many of the leaves are lost after 
the dough stage is passed. 



VALUE OF HAY 295 

Timothy is usually ready to cut for hay in July, when 
the best conditions are presented for hay making. The 
plants cure readily and there is ordinarily little loss from 
injury by rain or dew. Little or no extra labor is required 
in the curing of the hay. It seldom needs to be turned with 
the tedder or put into cocks for curing, practically as good 
.results being obtained when it is cured in the swath and 
hauled immediately to the barn or stack. A few hours. are 
usually ample to cure the hay sufficiently for storing. 

377. Value of the Hay. The prominence of timothy as a 
hay grass is due largely to the ease with which it can be cured, 
the certainty of getting a catch, the yields of hay it pro- 
duces, and the cheapness of the seed. It is not particularly 
high in feeding value, though the fact that it can be fed 
with Httle waste and that all classes of animals eat it readily 
makes it a general favorite on the market. Timothy hay 
usually contains about 6.2 per cent of protein, 45 per cent of 
carbohydrates, 2.5 per cent of fat, and 29.9 per cent of crude 
fiber. Only about half this food material is ordinarily 
digestible. Timothy is somewhat lower in protein than 
most of the other grasses, but is about equal to them in 
other food materials. (Section 330). 

378. Pasturing. Although timothy is not adapted to 
use as a pasture grass, and though meadows of it are often 
seriously injured for hay production by pasturing, this grass 
is often used for pasture purposes. It is rather a common 
practice to cut hay from a timothy and clover meadow for 
one or two seasons and then to pasture it for a year or more 
before breaking up the sod to plant some annual crop. 
While more pasturage could be obtained from any one of 
several other crops, this practice is a convenient one and 
probably will continue to prevail. Where the meadow land 
is to be pastured for a year or more, it is well to add small 
quantities of seed of some of the more permanent pasture 
plants, such as Kentucky blue grass, brome grass, and white 



296 FIELD CROPS 

clover. These will not make enough growth to be very 
noticeable in the hay during the first year or two, but they 
will become firmly established by the time it is desired to 
use the land as pasture, and will furnish better and more 
permanent pasture than timothy and clover without them. 

379. Harvesting the Seed Crop. As timothy usually 
makes but little second growth, it is necessary to use the 
first crop of the season as the seed crop. It is allowed to 
ripen and is cut with the grain binder, shocked, and handled 
in every way similar to a grain crop. The usual yield is 
from 3 to 5 bushels of seed to the acre. Timothy which is 
grown for seed should be free from weeds and from mixtures 
of other grasses. The price of the seed varies somewhat 
from season to season, but it is almost always possible to 
sow an acre of timothy at less cost than an acre of any other 
grass. This reason probably accounts for the fact that 
timothy is so generally sown. 

KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS 

380. Origin and Description. Kentucky blue grass, Poa 
pratensis, is either a native of the United States from Pennsyl- 
vania west to the Mississippi River, or it was introduced 
from Europe at a very early date. It is also called June 
grass, wire grass, and spear grass. It is now commonly 
found as far south as Tennessee and as far west as eastern 
Nebraska. It is a rather shallow-rooted grass, but makes 
a close, even sod, and one which is not easily injured by 
trampling or close grazing. The culms do not grow more 
than 2 feet tall. The culm leaves are scanty, not more than 
6 inches long and ^ inch broad, but the basal leaves are 
numerous and much larger, making the plant valuable for 
pasture. The flowers are produced in open, spreading pani- 
cles; the spikelets are from three to five-flowered. The 
grain, or caryopsis, is enclosed in the flowering glume and 
palea. The seed, that is, the grain and its enclosing envelope 



RELATED GRASSES 



297 



is from one tenth to one sixth of an inch in length. Canada 
blue grass seed, which is often used as an adulterant, is 
shorter, less pointed, and is generally cleaner in appearance. 
The legal weight of a 
bushel of Kentucky 
blue grass seed is 14 
pounds, but recleaned 
seed will often weigh 
25 pounds or more to 
the bushel. The seed 
ripens in June, hence 
the name June grass. 
381. Related Plants. 
Other species of Poa 
are of some import- 
ance as pasture or 
meadow grasses in 
limited sections of the 
country, particularly 
in New York and New 
England. Canada 
blue grass, Poa com- 
pressa, is of some value 
as a pasture grass in 
some sections of east- 
ern Canada, New 
York, and New Eng- 
land. It grows on 
poorer, heavier clay 
soils than Kentucky 

blue grass and largely takes the place of that grass in such 
locations. Where Kentucky blue grass will thrive, it is to 
be preferred to Canada blue grass, but in certain locations 
the latter is superior. The seed is frequently used as an 
adulterant of Kentucky blue grass. The main differences 




Figure 101. — A panicle of Kentucky blue grass. 



298 



FIELD CROPS 



in the appearance of the two grasses are that the stems of 
Kentucky blue grass are round, while those of Canada blue 
grass are flattened or compressed; the leaves of the latter 
are shorter and less numerous, and the panicles are less 
spreading. Other related grasses are wood meadow grass, 
Poa nemoralis, and fowl meadow grass, Poa flava. Neither 

of these is of much im- 
portance, though they 
are grown to some extent 
in limited areas. 

382. Importance. In 
the region from Virginia 
north to the Canadian 
border and west to east- 
ern Kansas and Nebras- 
ka, Kentucky blue grass 
is the most important 
pasture grass. It is of 
particular value in this 
region wherever there is 
a noticeable quantity of 
lime in the soil, as this 
element seems specially necessary for its best growth. In the 
mountain valleys of Virginia and West Virginia, and quite 
generally over much of Kentucky, this grass thrives as 
nowhere else, though in the limestone regions of other 
states it makes a very vigorous, nutritious growth. With 
white clover, it makes up a very large part of our pastures. 
It is sown comparatively little, but seeds itself in old meadows 
and pastures, gradually replacing the shorter-lived grasses. 
It is also the most important lawn grass over this area. 

383. Soils and Fertilizers. Though Kentucky blue grass 
grows best on lime soils, it will thrive on well-drained loam 
and loamy clay soils of the region mentioned. It will, 
not grow on as heavy clay soils as timothy or redtop, nor 




Figure 102. — Seeds of (a) Kentucky blue 
grass; and (h) Canada blue grass. The 
Kentucky blue grass seeds are broadest 
in the center and pointed; the Canada 
blue grass seeds are broadest at one end 
and blunt. 



SEEDING GRASSES 299 

will it do well on sandy land. Since the root system is shal- 
low, it is not adapted to dry sections nor to dry locations. It 
grows better under shade than many of the other grasses, 
and is particularly suited to open woodland pastures. 

Blue grass pastures may be improved by spreading barn- 
yard manure over them in the fall or early winter. Nitrogen 
may be applied in the spring after the grass has started to 
grow, and fall and spring dressings of phosphates and potash 
are beneficial. 

384. Seeding. The germination of the seed is frequently 
low, so that heavy seeding is necessary. Seed should not 
be purchased until a germination test has been made. When 
the grass is sown alone for immediate results, as in the case 
of lawns, as much as 40 pounds may be sown to the acre. If 
sown in a mixture with other grasses, some of which will 
make a quick growth which in the course of a few years will 
be largely replaced by blue grass, from 10 to 12 pounds will 
be sufficient. On account of its slowness in occupying the 
land and making adequate returns, Kentucky blue grass is 
seldom sown alone for pasture. It is either sown in a mix- 
ture or is not sown at all, the natural growth of the plant 
being depended on to occupy the land after it has been pas- 
tured for a few years. Even when seeded, it does not make 
much of a showing for three or four years and then con- 
tinues to improve for several years thereafter. Best re- 
sults are obtained from sowing late in the fall or early in the 
spring, either with or without a nurse crop. 

385. Pasturing. Kentucky blue grass begins to grow 
early in the spring and continues its growth till late in the 
fall, but it does not grow well in hot, dry weather. For this 
reason, it needs to be supplemented to some extent during 
July and August. It is well to provide some extra feed 
for stock during these months, in the way of silage or an 
annual pasture or soiling crop. Blue grass is one of our most 
nutritious and palatable pasture grasses. Cattle prefer it 



300 



FIELD CROPS 



to timothy or redtop, but will eat brome grass in preference 
to it. No special care is needed by pastures made up of 
white clover and Kentucky blue grass. On land to which 

they are adapted, these plants will 
naturally improve from year to 
year, as most of the fertility is re- 
turned to the soil in the manure, 
and the clover increases the supply 
of nitrogen. 

386. Care of Lawns. Thorough 
preparation of the soil and thick 
seeding are necessary to get im- 
mediate results in lawns and to 
keep down weeds. No better lawn 
can be made in our Northern states 
than one composed of blue grass 
and white clover. Frequent clip- 
ping only serves to improve it. If 
a good stand is obtained, there 
will be little trouble from weeds, 
as there will be no room for them. 
Lawns should not be clipped too 
closely or too frequently in hot, 
dry weather, for the roots are 
likely to ''burn out" from exposure 
to the sun. The land should be 
kept rich by the addition of manure 
or commercial fertilizers, as the 
fertility is rapidly removed in the 
clippings. The lawn should be 
allowed to go into the winter with a good growth of grass. 
387. Harvesting Blue Grass Seed. Most of the seed 
of Kentucky blue grass is produced in a small area near 
Lexington. The seed is stripped from the heads by horse 
machines as soon as the panicles begin to turn yellow, gen- 




Figure 103. — Panicle of Canada 
blue grass. Contrast it with the 
open, spreading panicle of Ken- 
tucky blue grass in Figure 101. 



RED TOP 



301 



erally about the second week in June. It is then piled in 
windrows 3 or 4 feet deep to cure, and is stirred thoroughly 
every day to keep it from heating. It is cured in about ten 
days, when it is cleaned and 
prepared for market. A good 
yield of seed as it is ordinarily 
cleaned is from 125 to 200 
pounds to the acre. When 
the seed is cleaned to weigh 
24 pounds or more to the 
bushel, the yield seldom ex- 
ceeds 75 or 100 pounds. 

REDTOP 

388. Origin and Descrip- 
tion. Redtop, A grostis alba, is 
a native of the United States, 
growing wild over a large 
portion of the country. The 
plant does not root deepl}^ 
but makes a firm, close sod, 
for rootstocks are produced in 
large numbers. It is valuable 
to prevent washing, and is not 
injured by trampling. The 
culms grow from 1 to 3 feet 
tall. They are often pros- 
trate or recumbent at the 

base and root freely at the nodes where they come in contact 
with the soil. The basal and culm leaves are both quite 
numerous. The flowers are borne in an open, branching 
panicle which contains many one-flowered spikelets. The 
grass may be distinguished from Kentucky blue grass, which 
it resembles to some extent, by its one-flowered spikelets, 
later flowering, and the reddish or purplish color of the glumes. 




Figure 104. — Redtop, a good grass 
wet lands. 



for 



302 FIELD CROPS 

It comes into flower about six weeks later than blue grass. 
The grain, which is only about one twenty-fifth of an inch 
long, is enclosed in the flowering glume, which is about one 
and one half times as long as the grain. The seed weighs 
about 12 pounds to the bushel before it is separated from the 
outer glumes; but recleaned seed may weigh as much as 36 
pounds to the bushel. 

389. Related Plants. A variety of redtop called creep- 
ing bent, Agrostis alba vulgaris, is grown to some extent in 
the Eastern states. It makes a finer, more slender growth 
than the ordinary redtop which is grown for hay, grows 
closer to the ground, and is better adapted for use in pas- 
tures and lawns. There are all gradations in form between 
creeping bent and redtop. Another closely related grass 
which is grown in lawns, on heavy clay soils, and in places 
where Kentucky blue grass does not grow well, is Rhode 
Island bent, A grostis canina, a small form with a creeping habit. 
Neither of these grasses is of any value for hay production. 

390. Importance. Redtop probably ranks next to timo- 
thy in importance as a hay grass over the region where 
timothy is grown. Its range, however, is wider than that 
of either timothy or blue grass, and it is most important 
where those grasses are sparingly grown. It thrives in New 
England, as far south as the northern end of the Gulf states, 
and on wet lands to the Pacific Coast. It grows on soils 
and in locations where timothy will not grow, and produces 
good yields of hay. The hay is about equal to timothy in 
feeding value, though it is not as palatable and is not in 
general favor. As a pasture grass, it is not well liked by 
stock, but it forms a sod more quickly than Kentucky blue 
grass, stands pasturing well, and yields an abundance of 
succ\ilent feed. It is not generally sown except on soils that 
are too heavy, wet, or acid for timothy or blue grass to 
thrive. Redtop is objectionable in timothy meadows 
because it lowers the market value of the timothy hay. 



ORCHARD GRASS 303 

391. Soils. Redtop will grow on a wide range of soils, 
though it does best in moist locations. On poor, undrained, 
or acid soils it has no superior. It produces a thick sod and 
adds much vegetable matter to the soil, so that it is of great 
value in building up poor clay land. 

392. Seeding. The rate of seeding depends on the 
quality of the seed and whether it is grown alone or in a mix- 
ture. When recleaned seed is sown, from 12 to 15 pounds to 
the acre is sufficient when sown alone, or 6 to 8 pounds 
when sown with other grasses. Redtop is commonly mixed 
with timothy and alsike clover. The seed is sown in the 
same manner as timothy seed, but care must be taken not 
to cover it too deeply. Redtop seed is cut and threshed in 
the same manner as timothy seed. Most of the redtop seed 
is produced in southern Illinois. 

ORCHARD GRASS 

393. Origin and Description. Orchard grass, Dactylis 
glomerata, is a native of Europe, but is now found quite 
generally, though sparingly, throughout the United States 
except in the semi arid sections. It is rather more deeply 
rooted than timothy, the roots often penetrating to a depth 
of at least 2 feet. The plant grows in tufts, or bunches, and 
does not spread by creeping rootstocks. The culms are from 
2 to 3 feet tall. The culm leaves are rather scanty, but are 
sometimes as much as 2 feet in length, and are broader than 
the leaves of most other grasses. The flowers are produced 
in June, about the same time as those of red clover. They 
are borne in a one-sided panicle, the spikelets being in dense 
clusters and containing three or four flowers. The grain is 
enclosed in the flowering glume, and is about one tenth of 
an inch long, while the flowering glume is one sixth of an 
inch or more in length. 

394. Importance. Orchard grass is not commonly grown 
in this country except along the southern border of the 



304 



FIBLB CROPS 



timothy region. In Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, 
Kentucky, and Arkansas, it is quite a prominent hay grass. 
It is also grown to some extent along the Pacific Coast. It 
produces a rather light yield of hay, while its tendency to 

crowd out other grasses 
and yet grow in bunches 
which do not fully occupy 
the ground make it of 
doubtful worth where tim- 
othy will succeed. Its 
habit of maturing with red 
clover makes it of value 
for growing in mixtures 
with that legume. It will 
thrive in drier and shadier 
locations than red top, and 
is of value in open wood- 
land pastures. Orchard 
grass grows best on fertile, 
well-drained soils. It 
stands drought better than 
timoth}^, though it re- 
quires rather more moist- 
ure for its best develop- 
ment than that grass. 

395. Seeding. The 
seed of orchard grass 
weighs from 14 to 22 
pounds to the bushel, according to its freedom from chaff. 
It is usually high in germination. It is sown in the same 
manner as timothy, though seeding by hand is the common 
practice when it is sown alone. The rate of seeding 
when grown for hay is about 35 pounds to the acre; when 
sown in mixtures, orchard grass makes up only a small part 
of the mixture, not more than 6 or 8 pounds being used. 




Figure 105. — Orchard grass, a hay grass of val 
ue in some localities. 



BERMUDA GRASS 



305 



Most of the seed is produced in a small section in the vicinity 
of Louisville. The crop is cut with a binder as soon as the 
heads turn light yellow, and the bundles are set up in small 
shocks to cure. When cured, in about two or three weeks, 
the seed is threshed with an ordinary threshing machine 
which has been provided with special screens. 

396. Utilization. When grown for 
hay, orchard grass should be cut when it 
is in flower, for it rapidly decreases in 
palatability and food value after that 
time. The yield of hay is fairly good, 
and the hay, if cut at the right time, is 
valuable for feeding. It is seldom or 
never found on the market, as only small 
quantities are produced ; but, where it is 
known, it is well regarded. Orchard 
grass produces an abundance of basal 
leaves early in the spring, so that it is 
valuable for earlj^ pasture. As it does not 
form a close turf, it does not stand pas- 
turing as well as blue grass or even timothy, 
three or four years when closely grazed. 




Figure 106. — Bermuda 
grass. 



It lasts only 



BERMUDA GRASS 

397. Origin and Description. Bermuda grass, Cynodon 
dactylon, was introduced into southern United States from 
the West Indies about two hundred years ago. It is a native 
of tropical and semitropical countries throughout the world. 
It is a low-growing grass which spreads by means of running 
stems both above and below the surface of the soil, forming 
a thick sod which is not easily injured by grazing, tramping, 
or clipping. The culms grow from 6 inches to 2 feet high, 
the latter height being reached only under the most favor- 
able conditions. Though the culms bear few leaves, the 
numerous running stems are leafy, and the total quantity 

20— 



306 FIELD CROPS 

of herbage which is produced is large. The flowers are 
borne in one-flowered spikelets in one-sided spikes, the culms 
producing from three to five of these spikes. The seed sel- 
dom matures in the United States, most of that which is 
sown being imported from Australia. Bermuda grass can 
not be grown successfully north of Virginia, Tennessee, 
Arkansas, and Oklahoma. 

398. Cultivation. Bermuda grass will grow on almost 
any soil, though it makes a stronger and more vigorous 
growth on fertile loam than on any other type. It requires 
a liberal supply of water for its best growth and is not par- 
ticularly resistant to long droughts. Unlike blue grass, how- 
ever, it continues to grow during the hottest months of 
summer, even though droughts occur. As the seed is scarce 
and high in price, new fields are usually started from small 
pieces of sod. The sod is plowed just beneath the surface, 
not more than 2 or 3 inches deep, and the strips are then cut 
or broken into small pieces. These soon take root when 
planted and the running stems form a solid turf by the end 
of the season. In making lawns, it is customary to set these 
pieces of sod about a foot apart each way in well-prepared 
soil. In field culture, the land need not be so carefully pre- 
pared and the sods may be placed at greater intervals. If 
they are dropped in furrows 18 inches to 2 feet apart each 
way and covered by plowing the furrows shut or by dragging, 
they will soon start into growth and will completely cover 
the ground in a year. The best time to do this planting is 
in the spring after danger of frost is past. Hay meadows 
are improved by plowing or disking every few years and 
then harrowing down level again, for they are likely to become 
sodbound and unproductive if left undisturbed. 

399. Uses. Bermuda grass is to the South what Ken- 
tucky blue grass is to the North, the most important pasture 
grass. It is perhaps not quite so nutritious as blue grass, 
but it produces an abundance of pasture throughout the 



ERADICATION OF BERMUDA GRASS 307 

summer months and is far superior to any other southern 
pasture grass. Its principal faults are that it is slow in 
starting into growth in the spring and is easily killed by 
frost in the fall. Bermuda pasture, however, may be sup- 
plemented during the fall and spring months by sowing bur 
clover and rescue grass seed on the Bermuda sod in the early 
fall. These plants start into growth about the time the 
Bermuda grass ceases, and are at their best while it is dor- 
mant. They have practically completed their growth in 
the spring when Bermuda grass again becomes green. Where 
weather conditions are favorable this combination will fur- 
nish pasture practically throughout the year. 

Bermuda grass is unsurpassed as a lawn grass in the 
South, though its late start in the spring and its dead appear- 
ance during the winter are objectionable. It is a profit- 
able hay grass only on the better class of soils. On moist, 
fertile loams it will produce three or four cuttings of hay 
during the season. The yield of the separate cuttings is 
not heavy, but the total yield for the season compares 
favorably with the best northern hay grasses, and the hay 
is of good quality. Cutting should not be delayed too long, 
as the stems soon become wiry and unpalatable. As Ber- 
muda grass will grow on light sand, on clay embankments, 
and on various other soils, and as it soon forms a thick turf, 
it is one of the best soil-binding grasses we have. It is use- 
ful in preventing sands from blowing and banks and rough 
fields from washing. 

400. Eradication. A grass which grows as freely from 
running stems and is so vigorous is naturally somewhat 
difficult to eradicate, unless its habits are well understood. 
Except in a few localities in the extreme southern part of the 
United States, however, it does not produce seed, and so the 
problem is somewhat simplified. The sod may be killed by 
shallow plowing, not more than 2 inches deep, either in hot, 
dry weather in summer or just before a cold spell in winter. 



308 FIELD CROPS 

In the first case, it dries out, and, in the second, it is killed 
by frost. As this grass will not grow in shade, it is easily 
killed by planting the field to an annual crop which will make 
a dense growth, as oats, sorghum, or cowpeas. Thorough 
plowing and good preparation, so as to insure a quick, vigor- 
ous growth of the planted crop, are necessary. Sorghum is 
perhaps one of the best smother crops, as it grows rapidly 
and makes a dense shade if planted thickly. 

JOHNSON GRASS 

401. Origin and Description. Johnson grsiss, Andropogon 
halepensis, is a native of southern Europe and Asia which is 
now common throughout the Southern states. It is a strong, 
vigorous-growing grass with large underground stolons, by 
which it spreads rapidly. It produces cuhns from 4 to 7 
feet high, with numerous leaves 1 foot or more long and }/2 
to 1 inch wide. The flowers are borne in panicles, resembhng 
those of sorghum, to which it is closely related. In fact, the 
entire plant except the perennial underground stems closely 
resembles a small plant of sorghum. The spikelets are in 
pairs at the nodes or in threes at the ends of the branches, 
only one of these spikelets containing a perfect flower. The 
grain is free from the glumes and is similar in appearance 
to sorghum seed. The plant seeds freely in all the Southern 
states and, as it spreads rapidly by both the stolons and the 
seeds, it is generally regarded one of the worst weeds of that 
section. 

Another species of this genus is Sorghum halepense, a 
tall, coarse annual. Different varieties of this are cultivated 
for their saccharine juice or for forage. 

402. Importance. While Johnson grass is a bad weed, it 
is also one of the best southern hay plants. It will grow 
on a wide range of soils and in all locations, thriving where 
there is an abundance of water, yet enduring drought well. 
It does not grow during a drought, but starts at once into 



ERADICATION OF JOHNSON GRA88 309 

growth when rains come. It yields two or three good crops 
of hay during the season, which, if cut at the proper time, are 
palatable and nutritious. It is of some value as a pasture 
crop, though the pasture is of short duration, because the 
grass does not stand grazing well. Like other grasses with 
strong stolons, it produces larger yields of pasture or hay if 
the sod is broken every two or three years. The growth of 
the plant is confined almost entirely to the South Atlantic 
and Gulf states, though it is also found to some extent in 
California. It is not a troublesome weed where the ground 
ordinarily freezes to a depth of 6 inches or more. 

403. Eradication. To eradicate Johnson grass, it is 
necessary to prevent it from producing seed and to guard 
against the introduction of seed to the field by hay, manure, 
or any other carrier. The easiest method of eradicating it is 
to pasture the field for a year or two, when the roots will all 
be close to the surface. Then, if the sod is broken late in the 
fall very shallow, not more than 3 or 4 inches, so that these 
roots are just turned over, many of them will be killed by 
frost. In the spring, the land should be worked frequently 
enough with the disk harrow to prevent all top growth. 
About the first of June, it should be planted to cotton or 
some other crop which can be given thorough cultivation, 
to prevent top growth from the few Johnson grass roots which 
remain, or some rank-growing crop like cowpeas may be 
sown to smother out the grass. Another method which is 
recommended is to plow the land thoroughly in the spring 
and cultivate it at intervals during the spring and summer, 
thus smothering the roots by preventing them from produc- 
ing top growth. By this method, the use of the land is lost 
for a year. Thorough cultivation and a good rotation will 
most effectively keep Johnson grass in check, as they will 
any other weed, and it is an open question whether the 
southern farmer will not yet find that Johnson grass is a very 
useful plant and one which he has little reason to fear. 



310 FIELD CROPS 

BROME GRASS 

404. Origin and Description. Brome grass, Bromus 
inermis, is a native of Europe, from which country it was 
introduced into the United States at a comparatively recent 
date. It is variously know as Russian brome, smooth brome 
grass, and awnless brome grass. It is a deep-rooting, stol- 
oniferous grass, with an abundance of root leaves and a 
good supply of culm leaves. The culms are erect, from 23^ 
to 4 feet tall, bearing a spreading panicle from 6 to 10 inches 
long. The spikelets are about 1 inch long, one fourth as 
broad, and contain several flowers. The seeds are three 
eighths to one half inch long, and are awnless. The grain, 
or caryopsis, is about one fourth of an inch in length, and 
is brown in color. 

405. Related Plants. Cheat, or chess, Bromus secalinus, 
is an annual grass which is a common weed in grain fields, 
particularly in winter wheat and other winter grains. It 
makes such a vigorous growth in fields of winter grain where 
the stand is thin as to give rise to the somewhat common 
belief that ''wheat turns to cheat." The grass is of little 
value for hay. Rescue grass, or Schrader's brome grass, 
Bromus unioloides, is of some value in the South as a winter 
pasture grass (Section 399). There are numerous other 
species of Bromus in various sections of the United States, 
but none of them are of apparent value. 

406. Importance. Brome grass is of such recent intro- 
duction into this country that its value is not yet well under- 
stood. It seems to be unquestionably the best tame pasture 
grass for the Great Plains region and the Pacific Northwest, 
and it is of more or less value throughout the North Central 
and Northeastern states. It will probably be many years, 
however, before it replaces Kentucky blue grass to any ex- 
tent in the Northeastern states as a pasture grass, or timothy 
as a hay grass. It does not thrive in the South and should 
not be sown farther south than central Kansas, except at 



BROME GRASS 



311 



high elevations. Its numerous deep roots enable it to with- 
stand drought better than any of our other cultivated grasses, 
which explains its value in the Great Plains and Intermoun- 
tain districts. It has been cultivated for many centuries in 
southern and central Russia, in a 
climate very similar to our Great 
Plains region. 

407. Seeding and Cultivation. 
The method of seeding is not differ- 
ent from that of timothy. It does 
much better on loam or clay soils 
than on those of a sandy nature. 
It grows fairly well on sandy soils, 
however, when once established, the 
difficulty being to prevent injury 
from blowing sands until a sod is 
formed. The usual rate of seeding 
is from 15 to 20 pounds to the acre 
when sown alone; when sown in mix- 
tures, 6 to 10 pounds is sufficient. 
Spring seeding is most commonly 
practiced, though the grass may be 
sown in the fall with winter wheat, 

if conditions are favorable. The seed crop is cut with the 
binder and is shocked and threshed like any grain crop. 
Yields of from 400 to 500 pounds of seed to the acre are 
frequently obtained. The stubble may be cut for hay, as 
most of the leaves are near the base of the stalk and are left 
by the binder. 

In permanent brome grass meadow, the sodbound con- 
dition which is likely to develop may be prevented by thor- 
ough disking without plowing at intervals of a year or two. 
Pastures will also be improved by disking. There is some 
complaint of difficulty in eradicating brome grass when it 
is desired to plant the land to a new crop, but this is largely 




Figure 107. — Brome grass. 
Note the running root- 
stocks. 



312 FIELD CROPS 

due to poor plowing and indifferent cultivation. Turning 
the sod completely over so that none of it is exposed to the 
surface, followed by the growth of a cultivated crop, will 
usually be effective in preventing the growth of this grass. 

408. Uses. As previously stated, the best use of brome 
grass is for the production of pasturage in the Great Plains 
and Rocky Mountain states. It is useful there also as a hay 
grass, particularly for the first two years after seeding, for it 
produces an abundance of hay until it becomes sodbound. It 
then makes a good growth of root leaves, so that it is valuable 
for pasture, but throws up few flowering stems. Farther 
east, it is perhaps better as a pasture than as a hay grass. 
It is particularly recommended in the Central states for 
planting with alfalfa for pasture. It is one of the most pal- 
atable of grasses, cattle eating it in preference to blue grass. 
II is also of value in improving worn-out lands, as it produces 
a large quantity of stems and roots and adds materially to 
the vegetable matter in the soil. The principal difficulty 
in sowing brome grass is that it is not often possible to obtain 
seed which is free from quack grass. 

MISCELLANEOUS GRASSES 

409. The Wheat Grasses. The wheat grasses are of 
considerable value as pasture grasses throughout the northern 
Great Plains and the Pacific Northwest. Slender wheat 
grass, Agropyron tenerum, is grown to some extent as a hay 
grass in Washington and Oregon. It is particularly adapted 
to dry-land farming. Another native grass of this region, 
Agropyron diver gens, or bunch grass, is also worthy of culti- 
vation on the dry lands. Farther east, in the Rocky Moun- 
tain region, western wheat grass, Agropyron occidentale, is 
grown to some extent for hay production. Quack grass, 
Agropyron repens, is sometimes recommended for hay or 
pasture, but its numerous running rootstocks make it so 
difficult to eradicate that it should not be sown where any 



THE FESCUES 



313 



other grass will grow. None of the other wheat grasses have 
this characteristic, and they may be sown without fear that 
they will become pests. 

410. The Fescues. Meadow fescue, Festuca pratensis, 
and tall fescue, Festuca pratensis elatior, are grown in cer- 
tain limited areas as hay grasses. In the timothy region, 
they cannot compete with that grass, for they do not yield 
as well and the seed is more expensive. Meadow fescue is 
grown quite commonly in northeastern Kansas, while both 
tall and meadow fescue are grown iii eastern Washington and 
northern Idaho. These grasses are often recommended for 
sowing in meadow and pasture mixtures, but they do not 
seem to have any definite place in this country. In England 
and quite generally throughout Europe, they are among the 
most valuable grasses. 

411. The Rye Grasses. English rye grass, Lolium 
perenne, and its near relative, Itahan rye grass, Lolium 
italicum, are among the most popular and important grasses 
in Europe, but they have never come into favor in the United 
States. They are grown to some extent on the Pacific 
Coast, but elsewhere they are little known. They do not 
yield heavily, but the herbage they produce is so palatable and 
nutritious that they appear to be worthy of more extended 
trial as meadow grasses where the rainfall is abundant. 

Table XVII. Composition of important grasses. 





DRY 


GREEN 




Digestible Nutrients in 100 
pounds 


Digestible Nutrients in 100 
pounds 




Crude 
protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fat 


Crude 
protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fat 


Timothy 


PoMfds 

.30 
4.7 
4.6 
3.7 
2.9 
5.0 


Pounds 

42.8 
43.5 
45.9 
37.9 
45.0 
44.2 


Pounds 

1.2 
1.5 
1.2 

0.8 
1.0 
0.9 


Pounds 

1.5 
2.3 
1.9 
1.4 
1.2 
2.9 


Pounds 

19.3 
14.8 
20.0 
17.0 
14.7 
15.0 


Pounds 

0.6 


Kentucky blue grass 
Redtop 


0.6 
0.6 


Bermuda grass .... 

Johnson grass 

Brome grass 


0.5 
0.5 
0.2 



314 FIELD CR0P8 

LABORATORY AND FIELD EXERCISES 

As many of the important perennial grasses as possible should be 
studied in the field or in the laboratory. If studied in the field, their 
characteristics should be carefully noted, particularly those that make 
them of importance agriculturally. Among these may be mentioned 
habits of growth, leafiness, seed habits, and turf-forming habits. De- 
scriptions of the roots, stems, leaves, inflorescence, and seeds of the 
important grasses of the neighborhood should be prepared. If fresh 
specimens are not available, each student should be provided with a 
dried plant which has previously been prepared by the instructor. 

REFERENCES 

Grasses of North America, Beal. 
Forage and Fiber Crops in America, Hunt. 
Grasses and How to Grow Them, Shaw. 
Farm Grasses of the United States, Spillman. 
Meadows and Pastures, Wing. 
Field Crop Production, Livingston. 
Productive Farm Crops, Montgomery. 
Forage Plants and Their Culture, Piper. 
Farmers' Bulletins: 

677. Growing Hay in the South for Market. 

814. Bermuda Grass. 



CHAPTER XVI 
ANNUAL FORAGE GRASSES 

412. Introduction. Several annual grasses are quite gen- 
erally grown as forage crops, while in some sections large 
acreages of the cereals are cut for hay. In addition, a large 
part of the straw and stover which is a by-product of grain 
growing is fed to stock. The principal annual plants of the 
grass family which are grown for forage are the millets, the 
sorghums, corn, oats, wheat, and barley. The Census figures 
for 1909 show that millet was grown on 1,113,000 acres in 
the United States, with a production of 1,540,000 tons of 
hay; that grains cut green for hay were grown on 4,254,000 
acres, producing 5,278,000 tons; and that coarse forage was 
grown on 4,093,000 acres, with a total production of 10,073,- 
000 tons. The ''grains cut green for hay" include not only 
the cereals but also the annual leguminous crops such 
as cowpeas and soy beans. The coarse forage includes corn 
and the sorghums grown specially for forage. 

THE SORGHUMS 

413. Origin and Description. Sorghum, Andropogon 
sorghum, is a native of Africa and southern Asia. The 
forage sorghums are closely related to the grain sorghums 
(Section 306) and to broomcorn (Section 312), for all these 
plants have been developed from the same parent stock. 
They differ from the other members of this group in having 
abundant sweet juice, while the pith of the grain sorghums 
and of broomcorn is dry or only slightly juicy. The plant 
grows from 5 to 10 or more feet tall, with numerous broad 
leaves. The flowers are borne in a terminal panicle, varying 
in size and form with the variety. The seeds are red or 

315 



316 



FIELD CROPS 



reddish yellow in color, protruding somewhat from between 
the dark red or black glumes. 

414. Varieties. The principal variety of sorghum grown 
in the North is Amber, an early maturing, comparatively 




Figure 108. — Sorghum grown in rows for forage. 

small sort with an open, spreading panicle, shining black 
glumes, and reddish-yellow seeds. The seeds are almost 
entirely included within the glumes, so that the apparent color 
of the head is black. The Orange, a somewhat later variety 
with lighter-colored glumes and a more compact panicle, is 
less grown now than formerly. In the South, the most 
popular and productive variety is Sumac or Redtop, with a 
compact head, red seeds, and very short dark red or black 
glumes. The red seeds protrude from between the glumes, 
so that the head appears to be dark red in color. Gooseneck, 
a variety with large heads borne on a recurved peduncle, so 



IMPORTANCE OF SORGHUM 



317 



that the head is drooping instead of erect, has been widel}^ 
recommended for sirup production in the South. It is late 
in maturing and is inferior to Sumac for the production of 
forage. 

415. Importance. The sweet 
sorghums are grown quite gener- 
ally for forage in the South and 
Southwest and to a less extent in 
other portions of the country. 
In the Central states, corn is the 
principal coarse forage crop, and 
sorghum occupies a minor place, 
though it is grown in a limited 
way. No accurate figures on the 
total acreage devoted to the pro- 
duction of sorghum for forage are 
obtainable, but in Kansas, where 
the crop is perhaps more impor- 
tant than in any other state, 500,- 
000 acres are grown annually. It 
is quite probable that not less 
than two million acres of sor- 
ghum are grown in the United 
States every year. 

416. Culture. The methods 
of growing sorghum for forage 
are like the methods of growing corn for fodder or for 
silage, except that the sorghums are always planted in driUs 
rather than in hills. The crop grows well on a wide range 
of soils, though it does best on those of more than average 
fertility. The plant has a vigorous root sj^stem, which en- 
ables it to use quick-acting fertilizers to good advantage. 

The seed may be sown with the corn planter, using spe- 
cial plates, or with the grain drill, using all or only a part of 
the holes. When grown in rows and cultivated, the crop 




Figure 109. — The compact panicle 
of Sumac sorghum, a popular 
variety in the South. 



318 FIELD CROPS 

is cut with the corn binder and handled in every way Uke 
corn. When sown in close rows, the plants make a fine 
growth which can be cured readily into hay. The rate of 
seeding in rows wide apart is from 8 to 20 pounds to the acre; 
when sown with a grain drill and not cultivated, 50 or 75 
pounds of seed is required; while for broadcast seeding for 
hay, as occasionally practiced, 75 to 100 pounds is neces- 
sary. The more common method is to sow in wide drills 
and cultivate like corn. The seed should not be planted till 
after corn planting is finished, since it will germinate only 
in warm weather. In some sections, cowpeas or soy beans 
are planted with sorghum for hay or for silage, and millet 
is occasionally sown with it for hay production. The meth- 
ods of handling for fodder and for silage are not different 
from those in common use with the corn crop. 

417. Uses. The principal use of sorghum is as a coarse 
forage crop to take the place of corn in sections where the 
climate is too dry for the successful production of that crop. 
The yield of forage produced by sorghum in the South, even 
where the rainfall is abundant, is usually larger than that 
produced by corn, and the prevailing opinion is that it can 
be cured more readily. The feeding value of sorghum fodder 
is not as high as that of corn fodder which is well-eared, but 
is higher than that of corn stover, and the sorghum is 
more palatable. In the North, sorghum is more often used 
as a soiling crop than as a dry fodder. It is readilj^ eaten by 
all kinds of stock, and is valuable during the late summer 
and early fall months for supplementing blue grass pastures, 
which are usually short at that time. 

Sorghum is used to some extent as silage, though the 
silage is not so good as that which is made from well-matured 
corn. It is, however, succulent and palatable, and when sup- 
plemented with good hay and cottonseed meal or some other 
concentrate, it is an excellent feed for dairy cows and other 
classes of stock during the winter months. It is also a 



SUDAN 0RAS8 



319 



valuable annual pasture crop, supplying an abundance of 
feed for cattle, sheep, and hogs. Cattle should be pastured 
on it rather sparingly at first, for there is some danger from 
poisoning, particularly if the growth has been stunted from 
drought or frost. 
There is no danger 
from feeding sor- 
ghum fodder, as the 
poisonous principle 
seems to disappear 
in curing. Another 
use of sorghum is in 
clearing the land of 
weeds. For this pur- 
pose it should be 
sown in close rows. 
As the growth of the 
crop is slow at first, 
the land should be 
harrowed once or 
twice in the direction 
of the rows about the 
time the sorghum 
comes up, in order to 
check the weeds and 
give it a chance. If 
the land is thus har- 
rowed, the crop will 

soon start into rapid growth and make a dense shade which 
is effective in smothering out all other plants. 

418. Sorghum Sirup. When first introduced, sorghum 
was grown only for the production of sirup and great hopes 
were entertained that it could also be used for the econom- 
ical production of sugar. It is possible to make sugar of 
good quality from sorghum juice, but the process is too ex- 









il 


m/ 




i 






i.JK 








(K'>_ 


>•»»■ 


"It^ 


^2 


.. 


^m 




^ 
r'*.^ 


v^S^ 




4^ ^ 


^ 


^ 

•*'\ 





Figure 110. — The spreading panicle of Amber sor- 
ghum, the best early variety for the North. 



320 FIELD CROPS 

pensive to make it commercially profitable. The produc- 
tion of sorghum sirup has decreased rapidly in recent years, 
owing to the manufacture of glucose and other sirups. In 
Kansas, where 500,000 acres of forage sorghum are grown 
annually, only 13,000 acres are used for sirup production. 

SUDAN GRASS 

419. Sudan grass is an annual sorghum similar in ap- 
pearance to Johnson grass, but which has fibrous roots instead 
of thick, fleshy perennial rootstocks. It is an annual which 
has most of the good qualities of Johnson grass as a producer 
of large quantities of fine, nutritious hay without the ob- 
jectionable feature of being difficult to eradicate when it is no 
longer wanted. It was introduced- by the Department of 
Agriculture from Sudan in 1909, and immediately came into 
popular favor, so that it is now grown extensively in the 
southern half of the United States, particularly in the drier 
sections. 

420. Description. Sudan grass when sown broadcast or 
in drills for hay usually grows from 3 to 5 feet high, with 
stems slightly smaller than a lead pencil. When grown in cul- 
tivated rows the stems are taller and larger, sometimes reach- 
ing a height of 8 to 9 feet. The plant differs from Johnson 
grass principal^ in having broader and more numerous 
leaves, thus making it a better hay plant, and in the charac- 
ter of its roots, as previously mentioned. 

421. Adaptation. Sudan grass may be grown successfully 
for hay almost anywhere in the southern and central United 
States, but most valuable in the southern Great Plains, 
where its drought-resistance and quick growth make it an 
excellent hay crop. It is also valuable for hay in the 
Southern states generally, except in Florida and the sandy 
sections along the coa'st, where other grasses succeed better. 
In the irrigated sections of the Southwest and California it 
is second only to* alfalfa as a hay crop, while in the central 



THE FOXTAIL MILLETS 321 

United States it is an excellent substitute for millet as a 
catch crop for late seeding. 

422. Culture. Sudan grass grows best in a firm seed bed. 
It is usually sown on spring plowing which has been well 
fined and packed by thorough harrowing. Seeding should 
be delayed till the soil is thoroughly warm; for, like other 
sorghums, Sudan grass does not grow well in cool weather. 
As a general rule, sowing at or just after corn-planting time 
will give good results. In humid sections, the best quality 
of hay is produced from sowing 15 to 25 pounds of hay to the 
acre broadcast or with the ordinary grain drill. In the Great 
Plains, however, sowing 2 to 6 pounds of seed in rows suf- 
ficiently far apart to allow cultivation is much safer. Sowing 
in rows is also advisable wherever seed production is desired. 

423. Uses. This grass is most useful for hay production, 
though it may be cut and fed green or made into silage. The 
best quality of hay is produced if cut when in full bloom 
or just passing out of bloom, but the yield from second and 
later crops will be larger if the first crop is cut before full 
bloom is reached. In the South, as many as three or four 
crops may be cut in a season, particularly if the rainfall is 
abundant. The hay cures readily and is nutritious. On 
account of its fineness and leafiness it is more palatable than 
sorghum hay, and has replaced sorghum to a considerable ex- 
tent as a hay crop. If cowpeas or some other legume is 
sown with the Sudan grass, the yield and feeding value of 
the hay are increased. 

THE FOXTAIL MILLETS 

424. Origin and Description. The term "millet," as 
already noted (Section 321), is applied to a number of annual 
grasses, even the sorghums being known by this name in 
some countries. In the present discussion it is applied par- 
ticularly to what is known as foxtail millet, Setaria italica. 
This plant has long been cultivated in China and other por- 

21— ^ 



322 



FIELD CROPS 









.yi-'^:: 



tions of Asia, where it is used as food grain as well as forage. 
It is probable that the original tj^pe is a native of southeastern 
Asia, though some botanists hold the opinion that all the 

varieties have 
been developed 
from the common 
foxtail, ^'e/arm vir- 
idis, which grows 
wild generally 
throughout the 
North Temperate 
zone. The foxtail 
millets are annual 
plants with fi- 
brous roots and 
slender stems, us- 
ually growing 
from 3 to 4 feet 
high. The inflor- 
escence is a close 
spike, from 4 to 
8 inches long. 
The spikelets are 
one-flowered, with 
bristles at the 
base, which are 
usually purplish. 
The grain threshes free from the chaff and is usually yellow 
or purple. 

425. Varieties. The principal varieties of foxtail millet 
are the Common, the Hungarian, and the German. Com- 
mon millet is the earliest of the three in maturing. The 
heads are rather loose at the base, but more compact toward 
the top, about 6 inches long, nodding, green in color, turning 
to yellowish brown when ripe, The seeds are large, yellow, 






Figure 111. — German millet. 



IMPORTANCE OF MILLETS 323 

and oval. Hungarian millet is later in maturing, with 
shorter, erect, compact, dark purple heads. The leaves are 
narrower and darker green than those of common millet, 
and the plant produces rather less hay. The seeds are 
purple, but there are usually some yellow, partially ma- 
tured grains. German millet does not stool as freely as 
the other two varieties, is later in maturing, and the growth is 
ranker and coarser. It yields well, but the stems are stiff 
and woody and the hay is less palatable than that from either 
Common or Hungarian. The heads are 6 to 8 inches long, 
broader than those of Common millet, and usually nodding. 
The seeds are small and round, and yellow or golden in color. 
■ 426. Importance. The millets are quick-growing plants 
which are grown more generally as a catch crop than for any 
other purpose. They do not grow well until the hot weather 
of summer, but if sown in June or July they will make a hay 
crop in six or eight weeks. They are usually sown where 
some earlier-planted crop has failed, as where fall-sown grain 
has winterkilled, or where corn has not germinated or has 
been destroyed by insects or rodents. As they are decidedly 
drought-resistant, they grow well in dry seasons or in regions 
of slight rainfall. The area sown to millet in the United 
States, according to the 1910 Census, was 1,113,000 acres. 
427. Culture. Millet should not be sown till the weather 
is warm, not earlier than the middle of June in the Northern 
states, and in May and June in the South. Millet grows well 
on a variety of soils, but succeeds better on sandy loam than 
on heavy clays. As the seed is small, the ground should be 
well prepared. The plant has abundant feeding roots and 
will grow fairly well on poor soil. Like other forage crops, 
however, it makes a much more abundant growth on fertile 
land and responds readily to applications of manures and 
fertilizers. The seed is usually sown broadcast and har- 
rowed in, though it may be sown with the grain drill. The 
rate of seeding for grain production is from 1 to 13^ pecks to 



324 FIELD CROPS 

the acre; for hay, from 2 to 4 pecks are sown. The seed 
weighs 50 pounds to the bushel. 

The crop is ready to cut for hay in from six to ten weeks 
from seeding, depending on the variety, the season, and the 
fertihty of the soil. The best hay can be obtained if the crop 
is cut about the time the plants begin to bloom. If the seed 
is allowed to form, there is some decrease in palatability, 
and the hay may be actually injurious to horses. The hay 
is slower in curing than timothy hay, for the growth is usually 
rank and full of moisture. When grown for seed production, 
the crop should be cut before it is fully ripe or there will be 
some loss from shattering. It may be harvested with the 
grain binder and shocked and threshed like other grain. 
Twenty bushels of seed to the acre is a fair yield. 

428. Uses. The foxtail millets are largely grown as 
emergency forage crops to supplement the usual hay and 
pasture supply. The hay is useful for feeding to all kinds of 
animals and is as palatable and nutritious as that made from 
most of the other grasses. Best results may be obtained 
when it does not make up the entire forage ration of the 
animals, but is fed with clover, alfalfa, or other hay. It 
should be fed with caution to horses; for, if fed in quantity, 
it is likely to cause serious disorders of the kidneys. Fox- 
tail millet is also useful for soiling and pasture purposes, 
being available within a few weeks from seeding. The seed 
is not generally used for feeding except to poultry, though, 
where it is produced in quantity, good results have been 
obtained from feeding it to hogs, cattle, and sheep. It is bet- 
ter to grind the seed before feeding to hogs and cattle. 

OTHER MILLETS 

429. Broomcom Millet. This class of millet is usually 
grown for the grain rather than for forage, as the stems 
are stiff and hairy and the hay is not eaten readily by stock. 
They have already been discussed (Section 322). 



SMALL 80ROHUM GRAINS 



325 



430. Barnyard Millet. Barnyard millet, Echinochloa 
crus-galli, is the common barnyard grass, which is occasion- 
ally sown for forage. It is a weed everywhere in damp, rich 
soils. A variety of it from Japan has been widely advertised 
by certain seedsmen as a very prolific forage crop, under 
the name of ''billion dollar grass." 
It grows best on wet lands, and on 
rich soil makes a heavy growth of hay 
or green fodder. The stems are rather 
coarse and the crop is slower in ma- 
turing than the foxtail millets, which 
are generally preferred. 

431. Pearl Millet. Pearl, or cat- 
tail, millet, Pennisetum spicatum, is 
a coarse annual grass which is grown 
mostly as a soiling crop in a very /^ 
limited way on rich land in the South. 
It grows from 6 to 10 feet high, pro- 
ducing a long, compact spike similar 
in appearance to the common cat-tail 
of the swamps, hence one of the com- 
mon names. It suckers freely, and 
will produce two or three crops in a 

season if cut for soiling before it produces heads. The young 
growth is readily eaten by stock, but it soon becomes woody 
and is of little value for forage. It has never become 
popular, and has no advantages over sorghum as a soiling 
and fodder crop. It is not adapted to the North. 




Figure 112. — Barnyard grass, 
or cocksfoot. 



THE SMALL GRAINS 

432. According to the Census of 1910, there were 4,254,- 
000 acres of grains cut green for hay, with a production of 
5,278,000 tons. This total is largely made up of the cereals, 
though it also includes some of the annual legumes, such as 
cowpeas and soy beans. About one half of this area is in 



326 FIELD CROPS 

the Pacific states, where wheat and barley are the principal 
annual hay crops. Most of the rest is in the North, where 
oats or a mixture of peas and oats are grown for hay. 

433. Com. A large part of the corn crop, particularly 
in the Northern states, is used for silage, soiling, fodder, or 
stover. The production and uses of corn have been dis- 
cussed. 

434. Teosinte. It is a "near relative of corn, but adapted 
only to semitropical conditions. In the South it will pro- 
duce a greater yield of green fodder than any other plant. 
It will grow to a height of 8 or 10* feet, but should be cut 
when it is about 5 feet high. It will then make a second crop 
as heavy as the first. The seed should be planted in hills 4 
or 5 feet apart each way, and the crop cultivated Uke corn. 
As it stools abundantly, 1 to 3 pounds of seed will plant an acre. 

LABORATORY AND FIELD EXERCISES 

1. Collect and mount specimens of all crops discussed in this 
chapter. Every student of agriculture should be able to identify 
either by the seed or by complete plants all the common varieties of 
the sorghums and millets. 

2. Make a careful study of the results secured in the community 
with sorghums and millets as forage crops and as seed crops. From 
the experiences in the community what would be a practical recom- 
mendation concerning the value of the growth of these crops? 

REFERENCES 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Bailey. 
Farm Crops, Burkett. 
Cereals in America, Hunt. 
Forage Crops, Voorhees. 
Farm Grasses of the United States, Spillman. 
Field Crop Production, Livingston. 
Productive Farm Crops, Montgomery. 
Forage Crops and Their Culture, Piper. 
Farmers' Bulletins: 

509. Forage Crops for the Cotton Region. 

605. Sudan Grass. 

793. Foxtail Millet. 



CHAPTER XVII 
THE LEGUMES 

435. What Legumes Are. The term * legume'' was 
formerly applied to any plant belonging to the order Legumi- 
noseae, the word being the Latin name for the kind of seed 
pod which is borne by practically all plants of this group. 
A legume in the original sense is a dry pod which opens along 
both edges, or sutures, as the pod -of the pea or bean, but the 
term is now applied to any plant which belongs to this order. 
Modern botanists have divided the Leguminoseae into sev- 
eral families, the largest and most important of which is the 
Papilionaceae, in which are included practically all the cul- 
tivated legumes. This latter name is derived from the Latin 
word papilio, a butterfly, from the resemblance of the flower 
to that insect. Among the useful plants of this family are 
the clovers, alfalfa, the vetches, peas, beans, soy beans, 
cowpeas, and numerous other plants of less importance. 

436. General Characters. The legumes are decidedly 
variable, yet they have many features in common. The 
leaves are alternate and are usually compound. The flowers 
are irregular as to size and shape of the petals, but are usu- 
ally more or less butterfly-shaped. There are commonly 
five petals, a broad upper one known as the standard or 
banner, two lateral ones (the wings), and two front ones, 
often more or less united (the keel). The stamens are usu- 
ally ten in number, often united, or nine in one group and 
one alone. The pistil is single and the ovary is one-celled, 
but may contain a number of seeds. The fruit is a legume, 
which splits open along both edges when mature. The seed 
is almost entirely filled with the cotyledons, or seed leaves, 
and on germination the entire seed often appears above 

327 



328 FIELD CIWPS 

grouud, as in the case of tlic boaii, the seed splittinjz; in half 
and forniino- the two cotyledons of the 3'onng plant. 

437. Differences. While the legumes have many points 
in common, there are numerous other respects in which they 
differ. They may be small herbs, shrubs, vines, or trees. 
They may be annual, biennial, or perennial. The herbaceous 
plants may be erect, as alfalfa; prostrate, as white clover; 
trailing or climbing, as the vetches and some forms of the 
cowpea. The leaves may be made up of three or many 
leaflets; they may be palmate, all the leaflets growing from a 
single point, as in the clovers; or they may be {^innate, the 
leaflets being arrangeii along the midrib, as in alfalfa and the 
vetches. The flowers may be of many sizes, forms, and 
colors, and may be arranged in numerous forms. They may 
be in a close umbel, or head, as in the clovers, or in a spike or 
raceme, as in alfalfa and sweet clover. The seed pods may 
be long and straight, as in the pea; more or less curved, as 
in the bean; coiled, as in alfalfa; or of various other shapes 
and sizes. Though the roots are all of the same general form, 
consisting of a main taproot with many branches, they vary 
greatly in the depth to which they penetrate the soil. Some 
annual species, like the pea and the bean, root only 2 or 3 
feet under ordinary conditions, Avhile the perennial species 
reach a great depth, particularly alfalfa, which under favor- 
able conditions may go down from 20 to 40 feet. 

438. Why the Legumes Are Important. The legumes 
are important in our system of farming for several reasons. 
They supply palatable forage which is especially rich in pro- 
tein, much richer than any of the grasses. They also furnish 
seeds which are important articles of food for man and for 
animals, as peas, beans, soy beans, and cowpeas. They add 
variety to the rotation ; and, as they are seldom attacked by 
the same insects and diseases which trouble that other im- 
portant family of crop plants, the grasses, \\\ej furnish an 
excellent means of combating these pests by means of a rota- 



LEOUMEH 



329 



tiori of crops (Soction 054). On account of the dcop-rootin^; 
tiabit of many of the plants of this fanriily, thoy improve the 
physical condition of the soil, penetrating the lower layers 
and leaving chan- 
nels to carry off 
surplus water and 
admit air when 
the roots decay. 
''J'hey add some 
available plant 
food to the upper 
layers of the soil 
hy Ijrin^ing it up 
from })elow. 1'hey 
materially in- 
crease the fertility 
and improve the 
physical condition 
of the soil }>y adfJ- 
ing a large supply 
of organic matter. 
Lastly, they are 
very important in 
the rotation, he- 
cause they have 
power, through 
the medium of 
bacteria which 
live on their roots, 
to take nitrogen 
from the air and 
leave it in the soil available for the use of other plants. 
439. How the Legumes Gather Nitrogen. Bacteria and 
other forms of minute life often live on our useful plants as 
parasites and do considerable injury, as in the case of the 




Figure 113.- 



-YouriK plant of red clover, showing tuber- 
clea on the roots. 



330 FIELD CROPS 

grain smut? and rusts, fruit rots, and other fungous diseases. 
In the case of the nitrifying bacteria, however, the relation 
toward the host plant is a helpful rather than a harmful one. 
If a healthy clover or pea or bean plant is dug up very care- 
fully and the earth washed away from the roots, many little 
knots or bunches will be found on them. These knots, or 
tubercles, which vary greatly in shape and size according to 
the plant on which they grow, are filled with thousands of 
bacteria, too small to be seen without a very powerful micro- 
scope.^ These bacteria take the nitrogen from the air and 
change it into a form which can be used by the plants. 
Nitrogen is the most expensive fertilizer to purchase; and, 
as the legumes add it to the soil and at the same time yield 
a valuable crop of hay or seed, we can see their importance. 

440. Conditions Necessary for Nitrifying Bacteria. Air 
is one of the essentials for the growth of nitrifying bacteria. 
Unless the soil is in good condition to admit a plentiful supply 
of air, these bacteria are unable to do their work. Tillage 
is beneficial to them, as it stirs the soil, loosens it, and admits 
air. Drainage is also helpful, for a soil which is full of water 
cannot admit the necessary air. Few leguminous plants 
grow well on low, wet, sour land, though alsike clover thrives 
in such situations. Sour, or acid, soils are not suitable for 
the growth of these bacteria. This condition can be remedied 
by the addition of lime. The acidity of the soil can easily 
be tested in a general way by applying a little of the moist 
soil to htmus paper. If the soil turns blue litmus paper red, 
it is acid and needs lime. The application of half a ton or 
a ton of lime to the acre, or double that quantity of ground 
limestone, will generally correct this acidity. 

441. Inoculation. Though the forms of nitrifying bac- 
teria on the roots of our various legumes are very similar, 
they usually can not be transferred from one kind of plant 

lA number of illustrations of typical forms of tubercles on leguminous and 
other plants will be found in the Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for 
1910. pp, 213-218. 



INOCULATION 331 

to another. For this reason, it is sometimes necessary in 
introducing a new legume into a community to supply it with 
the proper bacteria by means of inoculation. As the bacteria 
are very small and increase rapidly under favorable condi- 
tions, a small quantity of them will inoculate a considerable 
area. One of the best methods of inoculation is to take 
a quantity of soil from a field on which the crop in question 
has been growing and scatter it on the field to which it is to 
be introduced. This operation is sometimes expensive, 
particularly if the soil has to be shipped some distance, as 
the transportation charges will then be heavy. Five to 
eight hundred pounds of inoculated soil should be applied to 
each acre of the new field if the inoculated soil can be obtained 
close at hand. If it must be shipped from a distance, from 
200 to 300 pounds may be made to suffice, thus reducing the 
expense of transportation. This inoculated soil may be 
mixed with several hundred pounds of ordinary soil before 
it is applied, as the larger quantity can be spread more easily 
and evenly. It is often better to start a small plat and 
then use soil from it to inoculate larger fields. 

Where the distance from an old field makes inoculation 
by soil transfer too expensive, what is known as the ''pure 
culture" method of inoculation may be used, though it is 
less generally successful than the other methods. The 
bacteria are grown artificially in culture media, and shipped 
either in the dry form similar to cakes of yeast, or in tubes 
containing the Uquid solution. Before using the powder 
or liquid it is put into a vessel containing water, a Uttle 
sugar, and other suitable material for the growth of the 
bacteria. In a few days the water takes on a milky hue from 
the large increase in numbers of the bacteria, and it is then 
sprinkled on the seed or is mixed with soil and spread on the 
field. It is much easier to inoculate the seed, which should 
then be sown within a few days. As the desired bacteria 
are present in small numbers in most soils and are usually 



332 FIELD CROPS 

present on the seed, complete inoculation is often obtained 
by gradually increasing their number. This is best done 
by mixing a small quantity of the seed of the legume desired 
along with the grass seed. In a few years the bacteria will 
have increased sufficiently to insure the success of a straight 
legume seeding. Special inoculation is not often necessary 
except for alfalfa, and is not always essential for the success 
of that crop. A liberal application of barnyard manure, 
particularly that from stock fed alfalfa hay, is very helpful 
and often meets all requirements. 

LABORATORY AND FIELD EXERCISES 

Dig up any of the common legumes carefully when they are grow- 
ing rapidly during the late spring or early summer, and examine the 
nodules on their roots. These nodules are of quite different shapes 
and sizes on different plants. If they can be examined under a high- 
power microscope, they will prove still more interesting. It may be 
possible to find fields of alfalfa or some other legume where the nodules 
are not present and others where they are. Note the difference in 
growth. The instructor may provide an illustration of this kind by 
planting seeds of red clover or some other legume common in the 
neighborhood in ordinary soil in one pot, and seed which has been care- 
fully washed to free it from nitrifying bacteria in soil that has been 
baked long enough to sterilize it in another pot. This should be done 
long enough before this lesson is reached to allow the plants several 
weeks' growth or, if there is sufficient time between this lesson and the 
close of the school year for the plants to make the necessary growth, 
the pupils may do the planting and watch results. 

REFERENCES 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, Bailey. 

Agricultural Bacteriology, Conn. 

Feeding of Crops and Stock, Hall. 

Forage and Fiber Crops in America, Hunt. 

Field Crop Production, Livingston. 

Productive Farm Crops, Montgomery. 

Clovers and How to Grow Them, Shaw. 

First Principles of Soil Fertility, Vivian. 

Meadows and Pastures, Wing. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
THE CLOVERS 

442. Introduction. The term ''clover'' is applied to 
a large number of leguminous forage crops, but only those 
which belong to the genus Trifolium are discussed in this 
chapter. The Trifolia are leafy herbs which grow from 
a few inches to three feet high, with flowers in, dense heads 
or spikes. The leaves consist of three palmately-arranged 
leaflets, the number of leaflets being indicated by the botan- 
ical name of the genus. This genus includes many species, 
the most important of which are red clover, white clover, 
alsike clover, and crimson clover. Closely related plants to 
which the common name is ordinarily applied, but which are 
not true clovers, such as sweet, bur, and Japan clover, are 
discussed elsewhere (Sections 513-519). 

RED CLOVER 

443. Origin and Description. Red clover is a native of 
Europe and western Asia, and has been cultivated only about 
three or four hundred years. It was first domesticated in 
western Europe, and was introduced into England about 
1630. It has been cultivated in the United States 
for many years, and is now the most important leguminous 
crop in the Northeastern and North Central states. 

The botanical name of red clover is Trifolium pratense. 
It is distinguished from other species of Trifolium by its red 
flowers and oval or globose heads. Mammoth clover, some- 
times classified as Trifolium perenne, is very similar to it, 
and is usually regarded simply as a large variety of red clover. 
It differs from the ordinary type only in that it makes a 
ranker growth and matures somewhat later. Red clover is 

333 



834 



FIELD CROPS 




riguic Hi. — Heads of red clover at dillereut stages. 



IMPORTANCE OF CLOVE Rl^ 836 

claimed by some botanists to bo a perennial, but ordinarily 
it is a biennial, as it seldom lives more than two years on 
account of numerous insects and diseases which attack it. 

Numerous leafy stems are produced from a crown. 
These reach a heijz;ht of from 1 foot to 2 feet, depending; on the 
rainfall and the soil. Usually the taller plants do not stand 
erect, so that the crop seldom appears to be more than 18 
inches hi^^h. The leaflets usually have a pale spot in the 
center. The flowers are borne; in dense; }i(;;ids, which often 
contain one hundred or more individual flowers. They are 
similar in shape to pea flowers, but much smaller, and have 
a lonp; tu})e. The l(;n^th of tlu; flow(;r is about half an inch, 
and the width only about one sixtec^nth of an inch. The pods 
are small and membran(30us, enclosinj^ the kidney-shaped 
seeds, which are about one; twelfth of an inch lon^. The 
seeds vary in color from yellow to purple. 

444. Importance of the Crop. Af;c;ordin^ to the C'ensus 
report, thcjre w(;re 21,979,000 acrr;s d(;voted to the production 
of clover anrl mix(;d clover and timothy in the United States 
in 1909. Only four of our farm crops occupied a larj^er area, 
these bein^ corn, wheat, oats, and cotton. Of this area, 
however, only 2,44.3,000 acres were in clover alone, the 
remainder beinj^ \ised for the production of mixed hay. 
With the excerption of small areas in othejr states, clover pro- 
duction is confine;el to the North Atlantic anel Nejrth C^entral 
states, the rej^ion extending from Maine to Virginia and 
westward to the eastern portion of the Dakotas, Nebraska, 
and Kansas. There are also considerable areas devoted to 
clover in western Oregon and western Washmgton. Alfalfa 
largely replaces clover in the Rocky Mountain states, though 
occasionally large crops of clover are grown in valleys where 
alfalfa does not thrive. 

The principal states in the production of clover and 
mixed clover and timothy are Iowa, with three and one 
half million acres; New York with three million acres; Michi- 



336 FIELD CROPS 

gan, Missouri, Wisconsin and Pennsylvania with about 
one and three quarters of a milUon acres each; and llUnois 
and Ohio with more than a milUon acres each. 

In the region north of the Ohio River and east of the 
Missouri, to the Atlantic Ocean, red clover is more widely 
grown than any other legume, and is probably sown on a 
larger acreage than all other legumes combined. White 
clover is very common in pastures over this area, but is not 
generally sown; for, like Kentucky blue grass, it rapidly 
establishes itself on fields which lie undisturbed for a few 
years. In the South, where it does not thrive, red clover is 
replaced by numerous annual legumes and to some extent 
by alfalfa, while in the irrigated sections alfalfa is much more 
commonly grown on account of the greater number of crops 
it produces in a season and its longer period of life. 

445. The Best Soils for Red Clover. Red clover makes 
its best growth on a deep, fertile loam, though the soil does 
not need to be rich in nitrogen on account of the power of this 
plant, through the nitrifying bacteria, to utilize the nitrogen 
in the air. Like other legumes, red clover will store up little 
nitrogen on soils which are already well-stocked with it, but 
the bacteria do much more effective work on soils with a low 
nitrogen content. Some nitrogen is necessary to give the 
plants a start and allow time for the bacteria to establish 
themselves, but the supply need not be large. A deep soil 
is desirable for clover, as the root system is extensive; the 
roots will go down 5 or 6 feet if possible. 

As clover draws rather heavily on the supply of potash 
and phosphorus, these elements should be present in fairly 
liberal quantities. In general, an}^ soil which will grow good 
corn will grow clover. Wet, undrained land is not adapted 
to red clover. On such soils alsike clover can be grown more 
successfully. On poor soils the application of eight or ten 
loads of barnyard manure to an acre will aid materially in 
getting a good stand and healthy growth of red clover. 



PREPARATION OF LAND FOR CLOVER 



!37 



Where clover is sown in 

previous fall, no special 

Where it is sown alone or at the 








5 Lamb> 



% 






• « 



% 



446. Preparation of the Land, 
the spring with grain sown the 
preparation is possible, 
same time as the grain, 
special attention 
should be given to the 
preparation of the seed 
bed. The surface 
should be fine, but the 
seed bed should be 
firm rather than loose. 
Clover grows best in 
a soil that is well set- 
tled, as fall-plowed 
land or disked corn or 
potato land. Newly 
plowed land should be 
disked] or harrowed 
with heavy harrows 
to pack the lower 
layers before clover 
seed is sown on it. 

447. The Kind of 
Seed to Use. Good 
clover seed is plump 
and of a bright color, 
of uniform size and 
free from weed seeds 
and other foreign mat- 
ter. Bad weeds are 
frequently brought to 
the farm through clov- 
er seed. A careful examination should be made to determine 
that no such pests are present. Home-grown seed is much 
safer to use than that which is purchased, for it can be kept free 

22— 



8C\ 



dodwei 



9V'v.c\d, 
dodder 



"Buck Wo 




»rr\ 






«f\ 




Agwee( 



•VWist\ 



15 WW A ^ 



Figure 115. — Seeds of red clover and common 
adulterants and weed seeds found in it. 



338 FIELD CROPS 

from weeds and there is no danger of introducing; new and 
troublesome pests. New seed is not so desirable as that 
which is a year old, because new seed usually contains a con- 
siderable percentage of ''hard seed" which will not germinate 
for some months after planting. No seed should be purchased 
until a sample has been obtained and a test of its purity and 
germination has been made. Too little attention is commonl}^ 
given to the quality of grass and clover seed, and as a con- 
sequence large quantities of inferior seed are sold every year. 

448. Sowing the Seed. The common method of getting 
a stand of red clover is to sow the seed in the spring on land 
that was sown to winter wheat the previous fall or to sow it 
with spring wheat, oats, or barley. When sown with winter 
wheat, the seed is usually scattered on the surface before the 
frost is out of the ground in the spring, and the subsequent 
freezing and thawing and the spring rains are depended on to 
cover it sufficiently. Some farmers delay sowing until April, 
when the rains alone are expected to cover the seed. A 
more satisfactory^ method is to harrow the land lightly both 
before and after the clover seed is sown. If the harrow is 
run in the same direction as the drill rows, the wheat will 
not be injured but may even be benefited if the season is 
dry, and the clover is much more certain to succeed. If 
the seed is to be harrowed in, it should be sown just as early 
as the land is in condition to work in the spring. 

AVhen sown with a spring grain crop, the seed is usually 
distributed by hand or with a broadcast seeder after the 
grain is drilled, though it may be sown with a seeder attach- 
ment to the drill. It is not customary to cover the clover 
to so great a depth as the grain, though on loamy and sandy 
soils the seed is sometimes sown in the drills with it. When 
this practice is followed, the drill must not be permitted to 
run more than 2 inches deep, and shallower seeding is 
desirable. The usual quantity of clover seed sown is from 8 
to 12 pounds to the acre, when it is the only crop seeded. 



CLOVER WITHOUT A NURSE CROP 339 

When sown with timothy, about 8 to 10 pounds of the seed 
of that grass is sown with about 8 pounds of clover, the 
amounts of each approaciiinj;^ an cquahty. 

Winter wheat is one of the best nurse crops for clover, 
as it makes comparatively little shade, is removed from the 
land early, and does not draw heavily on the moisture sup- 
ply. Winter rye is also Sf->^^(^) ^J^i<^i winter barley is hardy 
enouj^h to be used for this purpose along the southern edge 
of the clover belt. Next to the winter grains, spring wheat 
and spring bark^y are desirable as nurse crops. Oats draw 
heavily on the soil moisture and make a dense shade, hence 
they are less desirable for this purpose, though they arc 
very commonly used. In some sections the practice of sow- 
ing clover in corn at the last cultivation is increasing (Figure 
117). Where there is plenty of moisture, this method usu- 
ally gives a good stand, but in dry seasons it is quite likely 
to fail. It is objectionable for the establishment of meadows, 
as the cornstalks or stubble will cause trouble the first season 
in making hay. Millet, buckwheat, and crops which make 
a rank growth should never be used as nurse crops. 

449. Sowing without a Nurse Crop. In sections where 
the winters are not so severe as to make winterkilling prob- 
able, the seeding of clover in August or early September 
without a nurse (Top is often more successful than sowing with 
a grain crop. The use of a nurse crop allows the production, 
of a crop while the stand of clover is being established, and 
the stubble is of some protection to the young plants, par- 
ticularly during the winter. The nurse crop, however, 
often draws so heavily on the supply of soil moisture and 
plant food that the clover is injured, while the sudden 
exposure of the tender plants to the full effects of the sun and 
wind in midsummer when the grain is removed is often dis- 
astrous. The loss of a crop may be avoided by preparing 
the land after the grain is harvested and sowing the clover 
not later than August 15. Sowing after that date is likely 



340 



FIELD CROPS 



to result in loss from winterkilling;. If sown after grain or 
early potatoes, the land need not be plowed, but should be 
disked and harrowed so as to make it fine and mellow. If 
clover is sown alone in the spring, under favorable conditions 
a fair cutting of hay may be obtained that season; if sown 
in the late summer after some other crop is removed, a good 
crop should be produced the following year. 




Figure 116. — A good stand of young clover in grain stubble. 



450. Inoculation. In sections where reil clover is com- 
monly grown, inoculation is not usually necessary, for the 
soil is well stocked with the proper bacteria. In newly 
settled regions where it is desired to introduce clover, inoc- 
ulation by means of soil from an old clover field or of pure 
cultures of the proper bacteria may sometimes be necessary. 

451. Treatment of the Crop. Clover is seldom given 
any treatment from the time the seed is sown till it is cut for 
hay the following year. It is sometimes possible to pasture 
spring seeding the following fall, but close pasturing will 
reduce the crop the succeeding year. Cattle inj ure the young 
plants much less than sheep or hogs, because they do not 



MAKING CLOVER HAY 341 

graze so closely. Clipping back the young clover and the 
weeds a few weeks after the nurse crop is harvested is often 
the most beneficial treatment which can be given. This 
treatment is not advisable in the North, however, unless 
there is time before frost for the plants to make sufficient 
growth to protect the roots from winter injury. A top- 
dressing of manure will greatly increase the yield, though, 
if the supply of manure is limited, it may be applied with 
greater profit just before breaking up the clover sod for corn. 

The usual practice the second season is to cut the first 
■crop for hay as soon as it comes into blossom, cutting the 
second crop either for seed or hay. Conditions are usually 
better for seed production at the time the second crop 
matures. The second growth may also be pastured, or if 
the land needs vegetable matter it may be plowed under to 
benefit the crop which follows. Better returns will be ob- 
tained, however, if this second crop is pastured or is cut 
and fed on the farm and the manure returned to the land. 
Clover alone ordinarily does not maintain a good stand 
after the second year unless the second crop is allowed to 
produce seed and this seed is harrowed in. When mixed 
with timothy, good meadows may be maintained for three or 
four years, particularly if a top-dressing of manure is given, 
but the hay crop during the later years will contain a large 
proportion of timothy. 

452. Making Clover Hay. Directions have already been 
given for hay making (Sections 350-352). Somewhat more 
than ordinary care is needed to make good hay from clover 
or the other leguminous crops, for they cure less readily than 
the grasses. The best clover hay is usually obtained by cut- 
ting when a majority of the blossoms are a little past full 
bloom. As the leaves contain a large part of the food mate- 
rial in the most palatable form, they are a very valuable part 
of the hay. They are best retained by curing largely in the 
shade. The hay should be cut in the morning as soon as 



342 



FIELD CROPS 



the dew is off, kept loose with the tedder, and raked and put 
into small cocks before the leaves are dry enough to shatter. 
In this way most of the curing is done in the cock where 




Figure 117. — A fine stand of young clover in corn. The practice of seeding 
clover in corn at the last cultivation is growing to be quite common in 
some sections. 

the leaves are protected from the sun. Two or three days 
are necessary in good weather for the clover to cure. It is 
usuallydesirable to open the cocks to the sun and air for 



PAH TURING RED CLOVER ?A:', 

a few liours I^eforc Ktoriri^. 'JIkj use of cock covcrn to pro- 
tect th(j hay from dew and rain m generally necessary to 
obtain the best quality of hay. Clover should not be allowed 
to become too dry Vx?fore it is put into the mow or stack, or 
the leaves will crumble and the hay will be dusty. 

If th(; hay is stacked, rather more than ordinary care is 
necessary in l^uilding the stack, for clover hay docjs not shed 
water as readily as hay made from the grasscjs. Much valu- 
able hay may Ixi saved if a foundation of rails or of fjoor 
hay is put down before the stack of clover hay is started 
M.nd if the stack is covered with grass hay, straw, or boards, 
it is a good plan to have this covering extend as far down the 
sides of the stack as possi}>l(i to prevent kjss from weathering. 

Care must be taken not to put the hay into the mow or 
stack when it is wet with dew or rain, as spontaneous com- 
bustion may result from the heating which will take place. 
Even though the hay does not become hot enough to burn, it 
is very lik(;]y to be s(;riously damaged. 

453. Pasturing Red Clover. Red clover is an excellent 
pasture plant Un' stock of all kinds, though it is not so good 
for permanent pasture as white clover. CJlose pasturing 
during the first year of its growth or early in the spring is 
lik(;ly to greatly njduce the quantity of hay or pasture which 
will be supplied during the season. Sheep or cattle are some- 
times lik(?ly to }>loat when first turned on clover pasture, 
particularly if they are hungry and the clover is damp. The 
stock should be well filled with other feed when turned in and 
be accustomed to the clover gradually. 

454. Value of Clover Hay and Pasture. As clover is rich 
in prot(;in, it makers an exccillfjnt part of the ration for all 
kinds of stock, particularly for young and growing animals, 
for dairy cows, and for poultry. Where clover can be grown 
successfully, protein can be supplied more cheaply in this 
form than in bran, oilmeal, or other expensive purchased 
feeds. Ptcd clover contains considerably less protein than 



344 FIELD CROPS 

alfalfa, but about the same quantity of the other nutrients 
(Section 330). It is best for pasture along with timothy. 

455. Harvesting the Seed Crop. The production of seed 
is usually possible wherever clover can be grown successfully. 
Except in the extreme northern part of the clover region, it is 
customary to utilize the second growth for seed production, 
because it is more likely to produce a profitable crop. To 
have the seed mature in good weather and escape insect pests 
which may be serious a little later, the first crop is cut a few 
days earlier, when the second crop is to be cut for seed, than 
would otherwise be done. In the North, where the growing 
season is short, there is not time to grow a crop of hay and 
one of seed; so the early growth is pastured or clipped back 
till about the middle of June, and the plants are then allowed 
to bloom and produce seed. This is the practice to some 
extent where there is ample time for two crops to mature, as 
the attacks of the clover midge and other insects are averted 
and much larger yields of seed are obtained. 

Clover seed should be cut when the heads have turned 
brown, and the seed is in the hard dough stage. If cut earlier, 
shriveled seed will result; while, if cutting is delayed, many 
of the heads will break off in handling. Unless an average 
of twenty-five or more seeds can be rubbed out of the 
mature heads, it will not usually paj^ to cut the crop for seed ; 
it should be cut for hay instead. The seed crop should be 
handled as little as possible to prevent loss of the heads. 
The usual method is to cut with a self-rake reaper or with 
a mower with buncher attached. Either of these imple- 
ments places the clover behind the machine where it will not 
be trampled by the horses on the next round. It is then put 
into cocks for curing, and within a week or two, if the weather 
is favorable, it is ready to be hulled. Clover seed is seldom 
stacked, for too much of the seed would be lost in the extra 
handling. The clover huller is quite similar to the thresh- 
ing machine, but has an extra set of rasps for rubbing the 



CLOVER IN ROTATION 345 

seed from the hulls. The usual yield is but 1 or 2 bushels 
to the acre, though 5 bushels is sometimes obtained. The 
usual price for clover seed is from $5 to $10 a bushel of 60 
pounds, though in 1918 it sold as high as $20 a bushel. 

456. Place in the Rotation. Clover occupies a prominent 
place in the rotation throughout the region where it is grown. 
It usually follows a small grain crop and precedes corn or 
potatoes. As has previously been stated, it is generally 
sown with winter wheat or with some one of the spring grains. 
Where corn is an important crop, the common rotation is 
a 3-year one of wheat, clover, corn or oats, clover, corn, 
though two crops of corn may be grown in succession, making 
a 4-year rotation. Where potatoes are largely grown, a com- 
mon rotation is potatoes, oats, clover. Sometimes the clover 
is left for two years, or two crops of potatoes or one of pota- 
toes and one of corn are grown, making this a 4-ycar instead 
of a 3-year rotation. In any case, clover is depended on to 
add vegetable matter and nitrogen to the soil. Where it 
is grown as often as once in three years, this element need 
not generally be purchased, but potash and phosphorus will 
have to be added either in commercial fertilizers or barn- 
yard manure, unless the soil is very rich in these constitu- 
ents. Best results are usually obtained when the manure is 
applied to the clover sod before breaking it up for corn. 

457. Enemies of Red Clover. The most common fun- 
gous diseases which attack the clover plant are leaf spot, rust, 
stem rot, and root rot. These diseases seldom do serious 
injury to a vigorous stand, but on poor land or elsewhere 
under conditions where the plant does not thrive they may 
cause serious injury. The best remedies are to improve the 
condition of the soil by adding fertility or by draining, and 
to practice a proper rotation of crops. 

Insects usually do far more damage to clover than dis- 
eases. Among the more common enemies are the clover-root- 
borer, the clover-leaf weevil, and the clover-flower midge. 



346 Fn:i.n (W^o/'s 

Tlio ivH^tboror usually (loos noi stM'iously alTtH'l (ho sduul 
until (ho l.'Utor part of (ho soi'oiul yoar, whoii {\\c rools aro 
laix'o oiunigh io harbor (ho larvao. or urubs. Tlioy (litai 
outor (ho roo(s and Ihm\^ thi\>uuh {\\v upjHM' pv>rtions. j;rt\atly 
woakonin.ii- (ho plan(s. 'Vho l>os( ^^Muo^ly is io plow (hi* 
land soon al"(or (ho orop of hay is ron\o\tHl (ho soooml yt\'ir. 
thus tios(royinc; (ho food o( (ho ij;ruhs. 'V\\o t'lo\(M-U\'if 
woovil son\o(inios <los(n\\s \\\c loavos of (ho plan( in (ho 
Oiirly s[>rinvj:: but. as now i^rowtli is soim\ pi\Hluood. i( iloos 
li( do sorious tlan\ai!;o. V\\o oh>vor-l]owtM' niidi^i^ iKu\s uo 
hann (o [\\c hay orop; bu(, as (ho oggs aro laiil in (ho hoads 
and (ho i»;rubs dovolop (horo, (hoy t\H\l on (lu^ youni!; sood and 
j>rovon( (ho produo(ion oi a sooil orop. Thoir ravaj;os ai\^ 
ohookod if {\\c (irst omp oi hay is out (|ui(o t\irly. for (ho 
larvao will (Iumi ha\o no opportunity to dtnolop. and 
tho vSoov>nd cvop will 1h^ boyond tlu^ povssibility of dan\aii;o by 
tho tinio tho sooond bn>od apjvars. 

A [\ara:si(io |h\s( known as dodvltM- is son\o(in\os (piito 
tixniblosonio in olovor lit^lds. This plant Iviiins gnnvdi about 
(ho sanio (iuio as (ho ytnnie; olo\or plants, anvl (ho s(on\ 
Si>on attaohos i(sv^lf (o (ho s(on\s and loavos of (ho olovor. 
ooilin^:; tiixlUly aix>und (hon\. Tho ^ixnnid ston\ of (ho dmldor 
thou dios away and (ho [>lan( livos on (ho olovor. Tho bos( 
provontivo nionsuro is to oxaniino tho olovor sivd oarofully 
to niako oortain that it is fixv fi\>iu tho soods of doddor. If 
it i:;ots into tho tioKi. tho ontirt^ irrowth of olovor whioh oon- 
tains iloddor should bo out away olosv^ to tho i^round and 
burnod. Cinwt oaiv slu>uld bo takou that no piooos o{ dotldor 
aro loft or dix-tpixnl. .as thoy will at onoo start into now irrowth. 

Will IK CLOVER 

458. Wliite Clover is ono oi our oonunonost plants, .ap- 
ixwriuii" in pastvnvs. lawns, roadsidos. .and othor placos whioh 
.aro loft in\brokon for (wo or (hroo yoars. 1( is .a sh.alKnv- 
ivotod plant with a orcoping habii of gix>wih. It doo^ not 



WIIITN (JLOV/'JJC 



-'{47 



\trow \i'ni.h Cinoij^li for h;i,y pror|ijr;iir>n, }>\ii, wiifj Kontiir;ky 

f;lijr5 j<ntHH forrriH Ujr; f;(;Hf/ paKiurr; r,()rnf;infi,fjr;fi fr>r a larj//; 

f);i,fi of t,fj(; f;f>ufit,ry. Tfic; f;of,n,f)if;?i.l ri;>,rri';, 1 rifoUum rrpf/n',, 

if\(U<'/,iU',H ilH tniilifj^ liaf>- 

it,. 'I'hrj plant/ in fxtron- 

rji;il, wjf/fi Hfn;i,l), loni/- 

Kl/alk(;rj I(5av<;H and Hni;i,ll 

fic/MJH of wf)il/<5 or pinkinfi 

fiowcr'H r>n lon^r KUirrjM. 

'I'h<; wrcifJH an; orjly ;i,f>oijl< 

lialf aH lf>n^ jih ihow; of 

Tfjd f;lov(;r, and .'in; or;> ntv; 

or yr;llow in f;olor. Tfi'; 

f)l;i,nf, \frowH arid Moorn', 

f)raotif;ally ifiroijj<liout 

l,fif; H(;?i,Hon. 

VVIiit/O clovr;r JK f)f;f;;i/- 
HJonally Hown in paHiun; 
rnixiiir(;H sd iho ru,U', of 
frf>rn 2 f,o 5 fjound.H U> i]n; 
iK'.ro, ihouj^h Ui(; natunil 

J<rOWl/f) of i\l\H ]>\ilfl\, IH 

j<r;n(;njJly (ir;fx;nfJod on to 
prf)(JiiC(; n p:,<K)(\ Hiand in 
fK'iHtu n;H Hh proHtr,'i,f/<; 
or ^^^,ilirJJ^habitrna^(;riJl,l- 
ly }i(;l[):-! it in lin Hprf;juj, 
;i^ thf; Htr;rnH root at t})r; 
joiniH and produ(;o nc;w 

plantH. Jt i.H for t fiin reoHori and on account of the Hrnall 
Hizc of the HccdH that whito clover Hpro?i/jH ho rapidly, and 
that Huch a Hrnall fjuantity of H<;ed \h n^;^/if;d to r^btain a 
j^ood Htand. Whitf; clf;vr;r i.s an irnport.ant hr)ncy plant, and 
\h alHo K^;n(;rally UHod in lawn rnixturcH. With blue p^mm 
it rnakc« a clo»e, oven turi which «tand« ffO(iuont cutting. 




V2,. 



; '/lite clovet 

HT'iwl}i titi't tJi'i mftrri'rrifi whi';h rooifi are 
pr'/'Jij''<yl ft.ll fil'/riK tf»'JKM-/ri of »vhit^ filovjr, 
Jfc ii? f,>/i« chtusifU-r which rfiak<;« it »o 
pfjrftisf^uii if. ?.;>:•» i)rc». 



a4S Fun.n cix-ors 

'I'lu^ ^^^H^^ is prodiu'Otl mostly in (\'is(tMn Wisconsin, wIumo 
(his pl.Miil is i;ro\vn in n 'J-y(\'n- rolnlion \vi(h l).'nK\\-. 'Tlu^ 
prii't* is usunlly ;i1hmi( (Iu^ snnu^ ;is llinl oi rinl ('1o\(M- S(Hm1. 

ALSIKE CLOVKR 

459. Alsike Clover is in((M-m(Hli;ilt^ in ;ipj>(\Mranc(* hotwoon 
wd nml wliilo ('K)V(M'. nml is cl.'iiiiunl l>y st>in(^ lo Ix* a hybrid 
InMwiHMi (h(* (wo sptM'ii^s. l(s bo(nnical n;nu(\ Trifolinni 
hyhridiini, inilicaios suoh an origin, but botanists now v^on- 
orally ai!;ivo thai i( is a. (Hs(inf( sp(H'i(\s. 'Tlu* plan( niaki^s 
a sltMidor, upri,i!;h( .i2;ro\v(h, whii'h noods suppor( (o provont 
lodj;ini;-, so (ha( i( d(H^s bost in a. nn\(ni"o wi(h some of (lio 
jirassos, as (in\o(hy oi- broint\orass. As (iu^ s((Mns art^snioodi, 
i( niakos a i'Kvhum* hay (han rod t'lovta*. 'Tho loavos havo 
lonij; stalks iikt^ \vhi(t> clovor; the lea(lo(8 are soniowhat lari»;or 
(han (hoso of whib^ clover, as are also (ho lu^ads of pink 
(lowers and (he yellow or Jinvn seeds. 'The name alsike is 
from the town of Syk(^ t^r Alsyke in Sweden, where the plan( 
is saiti (o ha\e lunai lirs(. cul(iva((Ml. AnoduM" common 
name, Swedish cIovcm-. is from a similar source. 

Alsike cU)ver is parlii'ularly adapled (o wet lands, where it 
is of (en subs(i(u(ed for ri^l clover. It makers hay of excel- 
lent quali(y. bu( (h(^ >it^ld is usually K^ss (han (hat of red 
clovor, and only tme cu(tinj»; can In^ made* durintj; (he season. 
It is less adap((Ml to us(^ in pastures than whitc^ cIov(M'. AVhen 
sown in mixtun^s with _i>;rasses, about 1 to (> pounds of seed 
is used. The hay is somewhat easier (o cure (han red clover 
hay, because (he stems are smaller. The plant lives from 
three to five years, and is. (herefcM-e. more permanent than 
red clover. l( will also i^ulun^ cold b(M(er. 

C^IMMSON CLOVKU 

460. Crimson Clover, Trifolinr)! incarfiatuni, is an annual 
clover which is sown aloni;* (he sou(hern A(lan(ic coast as a 
winter co\er and green niiumro crop, and is also used to some 



CRIM(^ON CLOVEIt 



349 



extent for the production of hay. ThiH plant was introduced 
from Europe at a comparatively recent date and is mA, 
(;xtonsiv(;ly grown. From Delaware southward, it mak(;s an 
exccillont cov(;r crop in orchards and elsewhere. It should 
be seeded in July or early in August anrl plowed under or cut 
for hay when it comes into bloom the following spring. ^J'he 
plants, which reach a height of 3 feet on 
good f^oil, are erect in thrur growth. ^Jlie 
heads are terminal, and are much longer 
than those of the other clovers, forming a 
dense spike. The })right crimson flowers 
•are very striking in appearance. ^J'hr; red- 
dish yellow or straw yellow seeds are larger 
than those of red clover. Tw(;lve to twenty 
pounds is sown to the acre. A mixture with 
other seed is seldom used. 

Crimson clover may be sown along the 
Atlantic coast in August and plowed under 
in May in plenty of time to plant a crop 
of cotton or corn. It adds a large fjuantity 
of vegetable matter to the soil and also 
materially increases i\u\ supply of nitrogen, 
used as a pasture crop, but is occasionally cut for hay. The 
hairy stems and leaves are somewhat objectionable, and 
when the hay forms a large part or all of the ration of an 
animal, ''hair balls" are sometimes formed in the stomach, 
giving considerable trouble. 

LABORATORY AND FIELD EXERCISES 

1. Mount specimens of the difTcrcnt kinds of clovers, showing 
full root system. 

2. Compare roots taken from different kinds of soils. What is 
the difTerencc? Why? 

3. Compare the leaves and stems. What do these have to do 
with the quality of hay? 

4. If poHsiMo, try to ^;row a few clover plants on inoculated soil 
and a few on soil that has not been inoculated. Wiiat arc the results? 




FJKuro 119. — Criin- 
Bon clover. 



It is seldom 



350 FIELD CROPS 

REFERENCES 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, Bailey. 

Farm Crops, Burkett. 

Forage and Fiber Crops in America, Hunt. 

Field Crop Production, Livingston. 

Productive Farm Crops, Montgomery. 

Forage Crops and Their Culture, Piper. 

Clovers and How to Grow Them, Shaw. 

Forage Crops, Voorhees. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

455. Red Clover. 

550. Crimson Clover: Growing the Crop. 

579. Crimson Clover: Utilization. 

646. Crimson Clover: Seed Production. 

676. Hard Clover Seed and Its Treatment in Hulling. 



CHAPTER XIX 
ALFALFA 

461. Origin and History. Alfalfa has been cultivated 
for forage longer than any other leguminous plant. Though 
it is probable that both the cowpea and the soy bean were 
grown at an earlier date for their seeds, their first use as 
forage is much more recent than that of alfalfa. Alfalfa 
is a native of Persia and other portions of southwestern 
Asia, whence it was taken to Greece more than two thousand 
years ago. It was cultivated by the Romans, and for many 
centuries has been an important forage crop in southern 
Europe. The Spanish introduced it at a very early date into 
South America, Mexico, and what is now southwestern 
United States. It was very successful in California and 
elsewhere, but the earlier attempts to grow it east of the 
Rocky Mountains were failures. It is now known that these 
failures were due quite largely to the absence of the proper 
bacteria, but it was long thought that other soil conditions 
were not suitable. Finally it was successfully grown in 
Kansas, and since the cause of the earlier failures has been 
shown, and its obvious advantages are understood, it is 
now being grown in every state of the Union. 

462. Description. Alfalfa differs from the clovers, to 
which it is closely related, in that the flowers are in short 
spikes rather than in dense heads; the pods are coiled instead 
of straight; and the third leaflet, instead of growing from the 
same point as the other two, is on a short stalk of its own, 
making the leaf pinnate instead of palmate. The genus to 
which alfalfa belongs, Medicago, differs from another closely 
related one, Melilotus, the sweet clovers, in that the sweet 
clover flowers are in long racemes and the pods are straight. 

3.51 



152 



FIELD CRVPS 



The sweet clover leaflets are arranged like those of alfalfa, and 
the plants are quite similar till they begin to bloom. 

Alfalfa, Medicago sativa, differs from the other plants of 
the genus which are found in America in that it is peren- 
nial instead of an- 
nual, and that the 
flowers are usually 
purple, while those 
of the others, the 
medics or the bur 
clovers, are yellow. 
The numerous 
stems which are 
produced arise from 
a crown, growing 
from 15 to 24 inches 
long, and are erect 
or spreading ac- 
cording to their 
length and the 
thickness of the 
stand. The long 
taproot penetrates 
to a great depth, 
with many small 
branches or feed- 
ing roots. The 
leaflets vary great- 
ly in size, but usually range from 3-2 ^^ 1 ^^^^^ i^ length 
and somewhat less in width. The flowers, which are slight- 
ly larger than the individual flowers of red clover, are in 
short racemes. They are usually violet-purple in color, 
though sometimes much lighter, inclining to a pale whitish 
or yellowish purple. The pods are in two or three coils, 
brown when ripe, and contain several seeds. The seeds are 




Figure 120. — Alfalfa plant showing tlie manner in 
winch a large number of stems are produced from 
one root or crown. 



VAItliyriHH Oh' ALFALFA ?,r,o 

Rr)rriowhat kidnoy-Khafx^d, though t[)(} vmAh of Iho \)(A may 
cr>rnpn;sH t[i(;rn into othr^r forrrjH. '^i'fioy are about tlin sarrif^ 
Hi'zfi as HMJ (•\i)W(tr Hcodn, Ijut anj much Iohh variablo in color, 
boinj^ (\n\ic: uniformly l>ri^ht olivci j^njcn. 

463. Varieties. 'V\\(^ ordinary grower ^ives little attcin- 
tion tr> varieties of alfalfa, and fciw really distinct on(?s have; 
been dcivelrjpf^d. Orje which is pnjminrjrjt in Minnesrjta, 
North Dokata, and ot[j(;r northrtrn staf/jH on account of its 
JiardincjHH is the (jrimm alfalfa, introduced into C'arver 
County, MinneBfjta, }>y Wendelin Grimm, an early German 
settler. Other strains of alfalfa have recently ber^n intrr>- 
duced which are qiiite similar to th(; Grimm in many respects. 
Thf; most noticea}>le difTc;rence in Cjrimm alfalfa from the 
ordinary tyfx;, in addition to its extra hardirjr^s, is the wide 
variation in the crjlor of thfj flowers, ranj^^inj^ frr^m white 
through ycfllow and j^rcjenish to th(i f)iirple of thr; f>rdinary 
strain. Other varieties are namc^i Lirj^ely iroui the locali- 
ties from which they have brj(jn imported, including the 
Turkestan, I'eruvian, and Arabian. Larj^e fjiiantitic^s of 
S(;r;fl of ordinary alfalfa hav(; be(;n Hr>ld as 'J^irkestan, which 
was claimfj<i to Ix; remarkably njsistant U) drouj^ht and crjlfj. 
Thr; truc} Turkc-stan alfalfa docis poss^jss thc^sfj qualities to 
sornfi f;xt(jnt, but it is })ettfjr than the common vari(;ties only 
in lirnitfid sections in the sfjmiarid West. Both JV^ruvian 
and Arabian alfalfa are' marked by a lonj^ iir<m\i\\!^ WiaHrjn 
and a lack of hardiness. 'J'hey are a success only in thr; South- 
west, as in Arizona and southern California. 

464. Production in the United States, 'ihe* arcia in 
alfalfa, as reportxirl by the C(jnsus of 1910, was 4,702,000 
acrcjs, the largest acreaj^fjs \mn\r in Kansas, Colorado, 
California, Utah, and IfJaho, though th(5 crop is widely 
grown in all the stattjs from Neliraska anri Kansas w(*st- 
ward, including Montana, Oklahoma, and portions of 
Texas. Whiki it is more naturally adapUid to warmer cli- 
mates, it is grown as far north as (^anada and in altitude^s as 

23— 



354 



FIELD Ch'OPti 



hii!;li as 8,000 foot. In tho iriij>;atocl portions of the Far 
W'ostorn statos, alfalfa is tho principal forai2;o crop. Out- 
sitlo of this district, it is nioro important in Kansas than olso- 
whoro, noarly ono million aoros now boin*:; thrown in that stato, 
the alfalfa acreage exceeding tlu^ combined area in clover 
aiid all the tame grasses. Its cultivation has spread in recent 




Figure 121. — Alfalfa sood on the loft, and rod c\o\c ^^-vd on tho right. 

years to the statos oast of the Mississippi Rivor,nnd, though 
there is no large acreage in any stato, tho importance of tho 
crop is rapidly increasing. 

The reasons for tho popularity oi alfalfa where it can 
ho grown aro not hard to tind. Once established, it lasts 
for years and yields from throe to five cuttings of very valu- 
able hay during tho season, tho total production being con- 
siderably greater than from red clover. It thrives in tho 
South where rod clover will not grow ; when once established 
it is more drought-resistant. The feeding value of the hay is 
greater than that of rod clover hay. When a stand of alfalfa 
is broken up, corn or other crops yield heavily, for the 
alfalf;i adds a large supply of nitrogen to the soil, and the 
long roots improve its physical condition by making the 
lower layers more porous. 

465. The yield of alfalfa varies greatly in dilTerent por- 
tions of the country, depending on the rainfall, the fertility 



Horr.H AND FrjtTHJZFJfH ?.r,r, 

of ih(5 Hoil iuul th(; l(;nff;l,}i of IJk; j<ro\vinj< K(;;iH(>n. In the 
Honih and SouUiwctHf, whc.n; four or five; or rnon; fMjtiinj^H 
may fx; nuulo in u. wjaHon and \]i(tt'(t \h an ;iJ)iirjdant Hiif)[)ly of 
wal/(;r cillKtr from niinfnil or irri^aiiori, Uk; yi(;ld may vary 
from }/i ton l-o 2 or )> foriH t,o (lio {u;r(; at a (Mittin^, and tho 
total yi(;ld for i\ut ho/ahou may roa(;h or 8 tonH. Wh(;n; con- 
dif,ionH aro I(;hh fjivorahUi, tl)(; ;i,nnij.*i,I yi(;ld UHually VM,ri(;H 
from I to .'i or 4 tonH to tfic; urso. TIk; av(;nijr;(; yi(;ld for tho 
ontin; (country in 1909, aH r(;port(;d \)y th(; ('(;nHUK Jiunjau, 
WiiH 2.52 tonH to tlio jicrc;. Tlio uHual ^^rovvinj^ H(;aHon for a 
(;ro[) of hay in from 'M) to M) <hiyH, thoii^h in warm wcjatfnjr, 
with pK^nty of rain, tho fi<;Id may 1x5 r(;ady for cMjttinj^ in 25 
dayH from tho rnmov.'il of the [)r(;vio»iH crop. 

466. Soils and Fertilizers. TIk; Hoits best adai>t(Mi to 
alfalfa arc; the dcM^f) lo.'iniH, in which the rootH can pan- 
ctrate to a conHi<l(;ra}>l(5 dcjpth. A ntiff clay Huhnoil which iH too 
hard for the; rootH to p(;n(;tratx5 Ih not HuitahU;, whih; Kanriy 
land docH not producer growth vi^oroiiH (;nou^h tr) k(;(;p down 
wcHidn. On rich loarrjH a Ht.'ind of nJfjilfji, wh(;n well (jHtal)- 
lishcid, will UHually crowd out w(;(;dH of all kindn. (jood 
drairiJi^ci iH 0HH(;ntial, for the plantn will not j^row with "wot 
f(M;t." Phinty of water is a necennity for the IxjHt growth of 
the crop, but the plant must be allow(id to j^o afUjr it and 
brin^ it uf) frf)m tlic; low(ir hiycA'H of the; Hoil. 

Althoii^h Jilf.'dfa will Htf)n; nitro^(;n in the Hoil, it will 
not thrive on f)oor land. Some nitrogen must be HUpplied 
till th(; plantH ^(;t a Htart and the bacteria be^in their work. 
Ooofl Hupplie.H of [)hoHphoruH and potanh are ncjccHHary. 
When it in thought adviHa})le to une acid phonphate, about 200 
pounds an acre nhould bci appli(;d. Barnyard manure in 
th(5 b(;st f(;rtilizer for alfalfn,. If a lib(;ral apf)lication of 
manure is plowed under before the; jilfalfa hcoA is Hown, 
there will usually be no trouble in K^'ttin^ a stand. Lime 
is essential to the fijrowth of alfalfa, particularly to the bac- 
teria which live on its roots. Unless the soil is known to 



356 FIELD CROPS 

contain a liberal supply of lime, the addition of a ton to the 
acre on at least a small portion of the field as an experiment 
is advisable. Alfalfa will not thrive on sour soil. Lime 
is the proper corrective. 

467. Preparation of the Land. One of the greatest 
essentials for success in the production of alfalfa is a properly 
prepared seed bed. Few crops depend so much on this. 
As it is very desirable to have the land free from weeds 
before alfalfa is sown, it is usually well to have some culti- 
vated crop precede it. In the South, this may be cowpeas, 
cotton, or corn, though cotton and corn are not often removed 
early enough to allow the seeding of alfalfa the same season. 
Early potatoes leave the land in excellent condition for 
alfalfa. A small grain crop, while not as desirable as a culti- 
vated crop, may precede alfalfa, as it can be removed in time 
to allow the preparation of the land for late summer seeding. 

While plowing is desirable, it is not always necessary. 
If the land was plowed for the preceding crop and has been 
kept free from trash, disking often gives as good results as 
plowing. When the land is plowed, the work should be 
done several weeks before seeding to give the soil time to 
settle and become firm. Alfalfa grows best in a soil that is 
fine and mellow on the surface, but is fairly compact beneath 
so that it will hold moisture well. Where alfalfa is sown 
on corn land in the spring, thorough disking and harrowing 
will put it in good shape. The same thing is true where 
alfalfa follows a small grain crop, particularly if the land was 
plowed for the small grain. On sandy land, it is well to sow 
the seed in grain stubble or to scatter a light top-dressing of 
straw over the field to protect the young plants from injuiy 
by the blowing of the soil particles. 

468. Sowing the Seed. The usual method is to sow from 
12 to 20 pounds of alfalfa seed to the acre without a nurse 
crop, sowing the seed with a broadcast seeder and covering 
it by a light harrowing. The heavier rate of seeding is de- 



TIME OF SEEDING ALFALFA 



357 



sirable in the humid districts, particularly where alfalfa is 
not commonly grown. Twelve to 15 pounds to the acre 
is quite sufficient 
throughout the 
Rocky Mountain 
and Pacific states. 
A grass seed at- 
tachment to a 
grain drill gives 
even distribution 
of the seed, but is 
a [slower method 
than the use of 
some type of 
broadcast seeder. 
The seed should 
be covered to a 
depth of from 3^ 
inch to 2 inches, 
depending on the 
soil and the rain- 
fall. It should be 
covered deeper in 
light sandy soils 
than in heavy 
ones, and in dry 
sections or in dry 
seasons than in 
wet ones. 

469. Time of 
Seeding. Success 
is most often at- 
tained with alfalfa 
when it is sown in the summer or early fall, rather than 
in the spring. From the middle of June to the middle 




Figiare 122. — Seeds of alfalfa and common impuri- 
ties. Seeds at right are natural size. A, alfalfa; 
B, yellow trefoil; C, sweet clover; D, buckhorn; 
E, wild carrot; F, wild chicory; G, curled dock; 
H, large-seeded dodder; I, small-seeded dodder 
(From Farmers' Bulletin 339.) 



358 FIELD CROPS 

of July is the best time to sow alfalfa in the northern 
states; the latter part of July or the first half of August is 
preferable in the central section; in the South, September 
is best. The proper time to sow varies to some extent from 
year to year, as it is desirable to get the seed into the ground 
when it contains plenty of moisture. If the land has been 
prepared some weeks in advance and has been harrowed 
after every shower so as to save all the rain which has fallen, 
there is usually no trouble from this source, except in the 
semiarid districts. Where the precipitation is light, spring 
seeding is often best, in order to take advantage of the June 
rains. There is usually more trouble from weeds with spring 
seeding, unless special treatment was given the previous 
year to clear the land of them. 

470. Sowing with a Nurse Crop. A nurse crop is not 
commonly used with alfalfa, though in some sections its use 
is regarded as good practice. On sandy land a nurse crop 
may protect the young alfalfa plants from wind injury, but 
it should be seeded very thinly. Generally, the use of a 
nurse crop is more likely to result in injury than in benefit. 

471. Inoculation. When alfalfa is sown for the first time 
in a locality, inoculation is quite often necessary to attain 
success. This inoculation may be by means of soil from 
an old alfalfa field, or by the use of pure cultures of the bac- 
teria. The use of soil from old fields is more generally suc- 
cessful. As the bacterium on sweet clover is apparently 
the same as that on alfalfa, the inoculation of fields where 
this plant grows freely is not often necessary, for the "bacteria 
transfer readily from one to the other. The bacterium from 
red clover will not grow on alfalfa. When a good stand of 
alfalfa is once obtained, it is then easy to spread the bacteria 
to other fields by scattering a few hundred pounds of the soil 
from the old fields over each acre of the new. The same 
result may be obtained if manure from stock which have been 
fed on alfalfa hay is used, while the dust blown from one 



ALFALFA IN MEADOWS 359 

field to another often carries enough bacteria to inoculate 
land on which the crop has not previously been grown. 

472. Treatment of New Meadows. If alfalfa is sown in 
the spring, it is likely to need some attention during the first 
season to keep down weeds. If the weeds are numerous and 
threaten to destroy the stand of alfalfa, the plants should 
be clipped back with the mower to a height of about 6 inches. 
If the plants begin to turn yellow, clipping will often start 
them into vigorous new growth. If this yellowing is due to 
disease, the clippings should be burned, otherwise they may 
be left as a mulch. If the alfalfa is not sown till late summer 
or early fall, no clipping or other treatment is usually neces- 
sary that year, and the following season one or more crops 
of hay may be cut. The field should not be pastured the 
first or second year, for the young crowns are quite easily 
destroyed. Later, when they become more firmly estab- 
lished, some pasturing is possible. 

473. Treatment of Old Meadows. On loose soil no treat- 
ment is ordinarily given to alfalfa meadows other than an 
occasional harrowing. On land which is inclined to pack, disk- 
ing every spring with the disks set straight so as to cut up 
the surface, but not to throw out the plants or cut off the 
crowns, will improve the growth of the crop. Disking should 
be done with caution where alfalfa does not thrive, for it may 
cause much more injury than benefit. If it seems desirable 
to disk the field, experiment with a small portion of it for 
a season before risking the entire acreage. 

474. Making the Hay. The time to cut alfalfa for hay 
is when the young sprouts of the second growth begin to 
start from the crowns, which is when the plants are just 
coming into bloom. Cutting should not be delayed beyond 
this time, for the leaves of the old stems will begin to drop 
off, and the new growth will be considerably retarded. After 
the hay is cut, it should be removed from the land as soon 
as possible to give the new growth a chance. The growth 



360 



FIELD CROPS 



oi succeeding crops depends in large measure on the prompt- 
ness of cutting at tlio proper time and of removing the hay 
when it is cut. A httle delay at each cutting may mean the 
loss of an entire crop in the course of the season. 

The methods of curing alfalfa hay do not differ from those 
of curing clover hay. It is very desirable that the hay be 




Figure 123. — Hay caps are useful in obtaining the best quality of hay. They" 
prevent injury from rain and aid in saving a large proportion of the 
leaves of clover or alfalfa. 



cured with as little loss of leaves as possible, and that it be 
green rather than brown when cured. This means that a 
large part of the curing must be done in the windrow or 
cock. Alfalfa should not be left in the swath exposed to the 
sun and wind for more than a few hours unless weather con- 
ditions make it absolutely necessary. 

After the hay is cured, it may be put into the barn or 
stack with the ordinary hay tools. This is the usual practice 
in the East, but in the West it is commonly stacked with the 
sweep rakes or ' 'go-devils" in common use there. With 
these tools, several hundred pounds of hay are gathered in 
bunches and brought to the stacks without the use of wagons. 
These stacks are usually scattered over the fields to obviate 



HARVESTING ALFALFA SEED 361 

hauling for long distances, the several cuttings of the season 
all being put into the same stack or group of stacks. 

As alfalfa hay does not shed water readily, the stacks 
should be covered with grass hay or straw to prevent injury 
from the weather. If the hay is to be sold, it is sometimes 
baled in the field as it cures, particularly in the dry sections 
of the West, but for immediate baling it must be much drier 
than for stacking. 

475. Harvesting the Seed. The best seed crops of al- 
falfa are produced only in the drier portions of the country. 
Alfalfa does not produce good seed freely under humid con- 
ditions, though a good quality and yield of seed can some- 
times be obtained. Most of the seed which is now raised 
in the United States is produced in the irrigated districts 
of the West, though some dry-land alfalfa seed is grown. 
As Hght and air are needed for the production of seed, the 
best conditions are obtained by thin seeding in rows. As 
soon as the seed crop is removed, the land should be culti- 
vated to start new growth. This method may also be used 
for the production of hay where the rainfall is insufficient 
to grow it by ordinar>^ methods. 

The alfalfa seed crop should be handled in about the same 
way as a seed crop of clover. As the seed sets best only in 
hot, dry weather, the second crop is usually left for seed, 
conditions then being more favorable than at any other 
season. When irrigated alfalfa is grown for seed, that par- 
ticular crop is not usually irrigated. The seed crop should 
be cut when about three fourths of the pods are brown. 
If left till later, many of the earliest and best pods will drop 
off and he lost. The seed is usually hulled without stacking, 
for it should be handled as little as possible. A fair crop of 
seed is 3 or 4 bushels to the acre, and as the price is usually 
high, the seed crop is often a paying one. 

476. Alfalfa in Rotations. In the sections of the country 
where alfalfa does not succeed particularly well or where it is 



362 



FIELD CROPS 



not a leading; crop iuu\ more especially where weedy grasses 
crowd it out after a few years, the use of this crop in a 4-year 
or 5-year rotation is usually advisable. A good rotation 
for these conditions consists of oats or some other small 
grain, alfalfa and corn. The ground is prepared for alfalfa 




Figure 124. — Cutting alfalfaforsoed with the self-rake reaper. Thia machine 
is etill used in some sectiona for liarvesting prain. It deposits the 
crop in bunches, as shown at the right in the picture. 



as soon as the small grain is removed in the summer, and the 
seed is sown a few weeks later. The following two to five 
3'ears the alfalfa is cut for hay, and then the sod is broken 
for corn. From one to three crops of corn and two or three 
crops of small grain are grown, to be again followed by al- 
falfa. Numerous variations of this rotation may be devised, 
such as the use of a crop of early potatoes or other truck 
crop before seeding alfalfa, or the substitution of potatoes for 
corn where corn is not grown. 

In some sections, it is desirable to leave a piece of land 
in alfalfa for a number of years. No definite rotation is then 



VfiE OF ALFALFA HAY 



S63 



followed, the land being left in alfalfa as long as it continues 
to yield profitable crops. The best success can be obtained 
from this system only when the supply of phosphorus and 
potash is maintained by the addition of fertilizers. When 
old alfalfa sod is broken, the land is planted to potatoes, corn, 
or small grain for a few years, and then reseeded to alfalfa. 
Larger profits would often be made if the srxi were broken 
at shorter intervals and a regular rotation followed, as the 
loss from diseases and insects would bcj rciduf^ed. 

In the cotton section, corn, cotton, and alfalfa can be 
workcjd into a good rotation, particularly if some small grain 
is grown. Alfalfa can be sown to best advantage in this 
section on land from which a grain crop has Ixien removed. 
After two or three years, when it is desired to break up the 
stand of alfalfa, a crop of corn may be grown, followed by 
a crop of cotton. Winter grain may then he sown among 
the cotton stalks in the fall, and the alfalfa seeded the follow- 
ing season after the grain is removed. 

477. Use of the Hay. By far the greater part of the 

alfalfa crop is used for hay. This hay can be fed to all 

kinds of stock, including even hogs and poultry. It is rich 

in feeding value, 11 pounds of it containing as much protein 

Table X VIII. Composition of A Ifalfa 





DRY 


GREEN 




Digestible Nutrients in 100 
pounds 


Digestible Nutrients in 100 
pounds 




Crude 
protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fat 


Crude 
protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fat 


All analyses 

First cutting 

S(if;on(l cutting. . . . 

Heforo bloom 

In bloom 


Pounds 

10.6 

9.3 

11.2 

15.4 

10.5 

8.5 

10.2 

15.8 

1.8 


Pounds 

39.0 
39.0 
40.2 
35.5 
.38.5 
39.2 
38.7 
35.1 
46.9 


Pounds 

0.9 
0.6 
0.7 
1.6 
0.7 
1.0 
0.8 
1.3 
0.4 


Pounds 

3.3 


Pounds 

10.4 


Pounds 

0.4 








" ' '.3..5 
3.3 


7.5 
10.8 


0.3 
0.3 


































1 1 



364 FIELD CROPS 

as 10 pounds of bran. It contains nearly twice as much pro- 
tein as clover hay and as much of the other nutrients. When 
fed to dairy cattle, it can largely take the place of grain or 
mill feeds. It produces rapid gains on beef cattle, sheep, and 
hogs, when fed with corn or other grain rich in carboh^^drates. 
Growing stock of all kinds utilize alfalfa to good advantage, 
and it produces excellent results when fed to laying hens. 

478. Alfalfa Pasture. While the stand of alfalfa is in- 
jured if it is pastured too closely, where this crop is grown 
in a short rotation there is little harm in pasturing it. No 
better pasture for hogs can be found. If it is desired to 
pasture the same field for several years, a large enough acre- 
age should be provided so that it is never eaten down close. 
If necessar}^, it may be cut for hay at intervals during the 
season. Care should be taken to avoid bloating in first 
turning cattle and sheep on alfalfa pasture (Section 453). 

479. Alfalfa for Soiling. Perhaps as large returns are 
obtained from soiling alfalfa as in any other way. It starts 
into growth again quickly and there is no waste in feeding. 
The largest yields are obtained if it is cut just when the new 
sprouts start from the crown, for then there is no delay in 
the production of the next crop. 

480. Alfalfa Meal. During recent years the manu- 
facture of meal from alfalfa hay has attained some promi- 
nence. This is simply the hay ground fine, so that stock eat 
the coarser stems as well as the leaves. In this form it can 
be fed without loss to all kinds of stock, including poultry. 

481. Insect and Rodent Pests. The grasshopper is the 
most serious insect enemy of alfalfa in most sections. Disk- 
ing the field in the very early spring is sometimes beneficial, 
since it exposes the young grasshoppers to the spring frosts 
and the attacks of birds. The use of the ''hopperdozer," 
an implement which when drawn across the fields knocks the 
insects into a pan of oil, is sometimes necessary when the 
pests become serious. Blister beetles sometimes cause in- 



DISEASES OF ALFALFA 365 

jury; cutting the crop when they appear forces them to 
migrate. Such rodents as prairie dogs and meadow mice 
are destructive to stands of alfalfa in the West. These can 
best be dealt with by poisoning with grain or potatoes soaked 
in strychnine, or pouring carbon bisulphide into the burrows. 

482. Diseases. Various rusts, leaf-spots, and mildews 
sometimes attack alfalfa, particularly when it is growing 
under unfavorable circumstances. About the only remedy 
is to mow the field, removing the diseased stems and leaves 
and encouraging the development of strong new growth. 
In Texas, a disease known as root rot is destructive to this 
and other taprooted plants. This can best be kept in check 
by growing grain or corn on the land for several years, as 
these plants are not affected. 

483. Weeds. Numerous weeds make the growing of 
alfalfa rather difficult; wild barley, crabgrass, and foxtail are 
particularly troublesome. In the blue grass region, Ken- 
tucky blue grass is one of the worst pests with which the 
alfalfa grower has to contend. All these plants can be kept 
down to some extent by disking, but when they once gain a 
foothold, it is often better to break up the alfalfa sod and 
cultivate the land for two years Vjefore starting anew. Where 
these grasses are common, a short rotation is better than 
leaving the land in alfalfa for many years. 

Alfalfa dodder, a parasitic vine, is as serious a pest as 
dodder in clover. The same remedies, the sowing of clean 
seed and the removal of all dodder plants wherever they ap- 
pear, are applicable. 

LABORATORY AND FIELD EXERCLSES 

A study of the growth of alfalfa, its root system, and the tubercles 
on its roots, may be made in the field, if the crop is grown in the neigh- 
borhood. At least a small plat of this plant should be grown on the 
school farm. Some time may well be spent in the study of alfalfa 
seed, to become familiar v/ith the seed and to aid in detecting adulter- 
ants and other impurities. 



366 FIELD CROPS 

REFERENCES 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, Bailey. 

Farm Crops, Burkett. 

The Book of Alfalfa, Coburn. 

Forage and Fiber Crops in America, Hunt. 

Field Crop Production, Livingston. 

Productive Farm Crops, Montgomery, 

Forage Plants and Their Culture, Piper. 

Clovers and How to Grow Them, Shaw. 

Forage Crops, Voorhees. 

Alfalfa in America, Wing. 

Meadows and Pastures, Wing. 

Alfalfa, Graber. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

339. Alfalfa. 

382. Adulteration of Forage-Plant Seeds. 

495. Alfalfa Seed Production. 

757. Commercial Varieties of Alfalfa. 

865. Irrigation of Alfalfa. 



CHAPTER XX 
MISCELLANEOUS LEGUMES 

484. Other Useful Legumes. In addition to the clovers 
and alfalfa, there are other legumes which are grown in a 
more or less limited way for forage or for their seeds, or 
both. Among the plants which are grown under field condi- 
tions for both seed and forage are the cowpea, soy bean, field 
pea, and peanut, while the field bean is grown for the seeds 
alone. In districts where canning factories are located, the 
common garden pea is grown in large fields. Among the 
plants grown for forage or green manure are sweet clover, 
bur clover, Japan clover, the vetches, and the velvet bean. 

Of these legumes, some are fully as important in dis- 
tricts where they are grown as are alfalfa and red clover in 
the regions to which they are adapted, and very largely take 
the place of those standard forage plants. Thus in the 
South, the cowpea is the most important forage plant and 
soil renovator. In some sections of the North a similar 
place is held by the field pea. Japan clover largely takes 
the place of white clover in southern pastures, while in 
Florida, Georgia, and Alabama, the velvet bean is a most im- 
portant forage and green manure plant. 

Still other less important leguminous plants are grown 
in a limited way in some portions of the country, but they 
are not of enough importance to require extended discussion. 
Among these plants may be mentioned sainfoin, Egyptian clo- 
ver, beggarweed, trefoil, lupines, and horse bean. 

THE COWPEA 

485. Origin and Description. The cowpea, Vigna sinensis, 
is a native of China, where it has been cultivated for many 

367 



I6S 



FIELD CROPS 



oonturios. Its introduction into the southern Ignited States 
dates back only a few decades. The plant, which isan annual, 
resembles the bean much more closely than the pea, the habit 
of jrrowth and the forms of the le4i\'l>s and seeds being quite 
similar to the garden bean. The plants vaiy greatly hi habit , 
some of tlie varieties standing erect and reaching a height of 

15 to IS inches, while others are trail- 
ing or twining and grow several feet 
long. The leatlets are three in num- 
ber; they vary in length from 2 to 
inches and are nearly as wide as they 
are long. The greenish-yellow flowers, 
which are shaped like those of the pea, 
are borne on long stalks. The pods 
are several inches long, cylindrical, 
and contain from six to fifteen seeds. 
The seeds are about the size of a navy 
bean, though there is wide variation 
among the different varieties in the 
size of the seed as well as in the color 
of the seed coat. 

486. Varieties. Numerous vari- 
Figure i_.-v—Cowpea branch ctics of cowpeas are growu, the num- 

with 1 raves, pods, and , - i i i i • 

flowers. ber of names probably reachmg sev- 

enty-five or one hundred . These vary 
in habit of growth, shape and color of the seed, length of 
growing season, and in other character. One of the most com- 
mon is the Whippoorwill, a vigorous-growing, fairh' erect 
variety with mottled reddish or chocolate-colored seeds. It 
is largely grown for the production of both grain and hay. 
The Iron has small, clay-colored seeds. The vine is an erect 
grower, seeds freely, and as the plants are resistant to dis- 
ease, it is coming to be a popular variety . The New Era and 
oneortwo similar varieties of small-seeded, mottled peas which 
grow erect and mature early are growu to some extent in the 




IMPORTANCE OF COWPEAH ?j;^) 

North, but are of little importance farther south where the 
stronger-j^rowing, later varieties can be ^own. Other more or 
less prominent varieties are the Black, Blackeye, Brabham, 
Groit, Unknown, Red Ripper, and the various Crowders, 
the latter name being given on account of the crowded 
appearance of the peas in the pod. 

487. Importance. The cowpea Ls almost as great a 
factor in the agriculture of the South as clover is in that of 
the North or alfalfa in the West. As it grows only in warm 
weather and needs a rather long season to develop, it Ls 

xonfined largely to the Southern states, though a few early 
varieties are grown as far north as Michigan. The general 
culture of the plant does not extend north of Kansas, Ken- 
tucky or Maryland. No definite estimate of the acreage 
devoted to this crop can be made, but in recent years it has 
rapidly increased all over the South. It is used in a variety 
of ways, as a hay or seed crop, as a pasture crop, as a gatherer 
of nitrogen, and as a green manure crop to add both humus 
and nitrogen. It is sown alone or in combination with other 
crops, a common practice being to sow it with corn at the 
last cultivation, either in the rows or between them. 

488. Soils and Fertilizers. Cowpeas will grow on almost 
any soil, though naturally they grow better on a fertile 
loam than elsewhere. Some varieties, like the Black, are 
particularly adapted to sandy land. Others do better on 
the heavier clays and clay loams. As the cowpea is a nitro- 
gen gatherer, this element need not be supplied. A con- 
siderable quantity of food material Ls stored in the large 
seed, and the young plant is able to develop a vigorous root 
system before this is exhausted, which fact explains why the 
cowpea thrives on land that is Y&ry low in fertility. Rich land 
tends to produce vines at the expense of seed production. 
A fair supply of potash and phosphorus is necessary for the 
best growth of the crop, and on poor soils greatly increased 
vields are obtained when these elements are supplied. 

24— 



370 FIELD CROPS 

489. Growing the Crop. Thoujj;h the plants will grow 
fairly well on land that has had little attention, the stronger 
growth in a good seed bed pays well for the extra work of 
preparation. The land is usually plowed for eowpeas, though, 
when they follow a grain crop or a cultivated crop late in 
the season, the seed may be disked or cultivated in without 
plowing. The seed is sown broadcast, with the grain drill, 
or in rows far enough apart to cultivate. When grown for 
hay, one of the first two methods is used, while for seed pro- 
duction the plants are more often grown in cultivated rows. 
The seed should be covered to a depth of from lYi to 2 
inches. As the plants are tender, seeding should not begin 
till after all danger of frost is past and the weather is warm. 
Sowings can be made from that time up to August in the 
South, while along the northern limit of their cultivation 
seed may be sown as late as July 10 with fair prospect of a 
good hay crop. The usual rate of seeding is 2 to 3 pecks in 
rows, 4 to 5 pecks when sown with the grain drill, and 6 to 
8 pecks when sown broadcast. AMien grown for hay, the 
date of planting is usually fixed so that the harvest comes in 
September, as weather conditions are generally more favor- 
able for curing at that time than at any other. Cowpeas 
sown broadcast or with the grain drill require no further treat- 
ment till harvest. Those sown in rows are cultivated much 
like corn, though two or three cultivations are all that are 
usually necessary, for the plants soon cover the ground. 

490. Making Cowpea Hay. Cowpeas should be cut for 
hay when one third or more of the pods are ripe. The hay 
will then contain the largest quantity of nutriment. If left 
till half or more are ripe, some of the peas are likely to shell 
out in handling and the leaves may begin to drop before 
cutting. The hay is usually cut with the mower and is left 
in the swath for two or three days to cure. When cut at 
this stage the hay cures quite rapidly, but the best hay is 
made if it is put up in cocks after it has partly cured in the 



HARVESTING C0WPEA8 371 

swath. In wet weather, frames are sometimes used to raise 
the hay off the ground, and admit air to all parts of the cock. 
After the hay Is cured, it may be stacked or put in the mow 
in the same manner as other hay. 

491. Harvesting the Seed Crop. The lyest crops of cow- 
pea seed are producer! when the plants are grown in rows 
and cultivated. The crop should not Ixj harvested till two 
thirds or more of the pods are fully ripe. The pr>ds may 
be picked by hand, or the entire plant may l^Xi harvested 
by cutting with a sc^lf-rake reajxir, a bf^am harvester, or an 
ordinary mower with or without a buncher attachment. In 
any case, the pods and vines should be thoroughly dry be- 
fore they are threshed. If the vines are harvested, the use 
of racks for drying is quite generally advisable to prevent 
the peas from molding in the cocks. AfU^r the vines are 
cured, they may be put in the mow or stack and threshed 
out as desirerj. The threshing may be done with a flail, 
with the ordinary threshing machine with part of the con- 
caves removed, or with a spcicial pea thresher. 

492. Cowpeas as Feed for Stock. Cowpea hay may be 
fed to all classes of stock, but is particularly good for feeding 
to dairy cows, sheep, and hogs. It makes an excellent addi- 
tion to the ration for beef cattle, and is also largely fed to 
horses in some districts. The hay, particularly if it contains 
a fair percentage of seed. Is very rich in pvoUAn, and contains 
a good supply of the other food constituents. The straw 
from the production of cowpea seed is lass valuable than cow- 
pea hay, since it contains fewer leaves, practically no seeds, 
and the vines are coarser and less palatable. It does con- 
tain considerable nutriment, however, and, when fed with 
other material, makes good roughage. The seeds of cow- 
peas are usually too high in price to be fed with profit, but 
they are an excellent feed for stock of all kinds, including 
poultry. The cowpea plant makes very good pasture, though 
better results are usually obtained from other uses. A 



372 



FIELD CROPS 



field of mature cowpeas may be cheaply and profitably har- 
vested by pasturing it off with hogs or sheep. Cattle also 
thrive on cowpea pasture, but should be turned in before the 
peas mature. 

493. Use as a Soil Improver. One of the most important 
uses of the cowpea is in the building up of poor or worn-out 




Figure 126. — Plowing under cowpeas to add vegetable matter to the soil. Note 
the pulverizer behind the plow to break up clods and pack the loose earth. 

soils. When the entire plant is turned under, it adds large 
quantities of vegetable matter containing a considerable 
supply of nitrogen. When the stubble alone is plowed under, 
the vigorous roots materially improve the condition of the 
soil and some nitrogen is added. Practically all crops grow 
better after cowpeas. Largely increased yields have been 
obtained at all the southern experiment stations following 
this crop. 

494. Growing with Other Crops. Cowpeas are fre- 
quently grown with other crops, including sorghum, corn, 



C0WPEA8 IN ROTATION 373 

and millet. When grown with sorghum or millet, the seed 
is usually sown broadcast and the crop cut for hay or for 
green forage. The addition of these plants makes the hay 
somewhat easier to cure and also increases the yield. Peas 
may be planted in the rows with corn and may grow along 
with the crop, both being cut for fodder or for silage, or they 
may be planted in the corn at the last cultivation. In the 
latter case, they are pastured off with the cornstalks after 
the corn is harvested, or the vines are turned under to add 
vegetable matter to the soil. 

- 495. Use in Rotations. As corn and cotton are the 
most important crops in the region where cowpeas are most 
largely grown, all rotations are usually based on these two 
crops. A good rotation is (1) cotton; (2) corn with cowpeas 
sown in it; (3) winter grain sown after the corn is removed, 
followed the next summer by cowpeas sown on the stubble 
for hay or seed. Numerous variations of this rotation may 
be devised, but if possible a crop of cowpeas should be turned 
under and one harvested for hay or seed once in three years. 
As the seasons are long and the crops make rapid growth in 
warm weather, the plan of growing cowpeas after a grain 
crop has been harvested is entirely practicable in the South. 

496. Insects and Diseases. Cowpeas are seldom injured 
by insects when growing, but weevils are very destructive 
to the seed after it is harvested. It is generally believed 
that they damage the seed less in the pod than when it is 
threshed, and so it is rather a common practice not to thresh 
the seed till near planting time in the spring. In threshed 
seed, they may be killed by fumigating in tight boxes or bins 
with carbon bisulphide (Section 150), or by being raised to 
a temperature of 130° F. in a tight room for 20 minutes. 

The most troublesome diseases are root knot and wilt, 
which usually occur only on sandy soils along the Atlantic 
Coast. The best preventive measures are rotation of crops 
and the use of resistant varieties, such as Iron. 



374 FIELD CROPS 

THE SOY BEAN 

497. Origin and Description. Much that has been said 
regarding the cowpea apphes equally well to the soy bean. 
This plant was introduced into the United States nearly one 
hundred years ago from Japan and China, where, like the 
cowpea, it has been cultivated for many centuries, but it 
has come into prominence only recently. The growth is 
usually erect, with stiff, hairy stems and numerous large, 
broad leaves. The leaves, which are borne on long stems, 
consist of three leaflets. The leaflets are from 2 to 3 inches 
long; and the width is about two thirds of the length. The 
flowers are small, clustered in the axils of the leaves, and are 
usually pale purple or lilac in color. The short, hairy pods 
contain two or three round or slightly flattened seeds. The 
seeds are usually black, green, or yellow; and range in diam- 
eter from one eighth to one quarter of an inch. The size 
of the plant, the habit of growth, and the size and color of 
the seeds vary even more than these characters of the cowpea. 
While most of the varieties are erect and vary in height 
from 1 to 4 feet, some sorts have small seeds, small leaves and 
a trailing habit, the vines reaching a length of several feet. 
The most prominent varieties are Mammoth, Ito San, Medium 
Yellow, Hollybrook, and Wilson. 

498. Importance. The soy bean does not yet occupy 
a very prominent place in the United States, though its 
importance is increasing rapidly. In China and Japan it is 
one of the most important crops for the production of grain 
and oil. As the plant is less easily injured by frost than the 
cowpea, it can be grown farther north. It is most useful 
along the northern border of the section where cowpeas are 
grown, from Kansas, Kentucky, and Maryland northward. 
The soy bean grows very well on poor and sandy lands, and 
is sure to become as important for the building up of poor 
soils and for forage in this region as the cowpea now is 
farther south. 



GROWING fiOY BEANS 



375 



499. Growing the Crop. The methods of growing soy 
beans differ little from those in use in the cultivation of the 
cowpea crop. The plants are more often grown in rows and 
cultivated, as the crop is generally grown for the production 
of seed as well as forage. The 
preparation of the soil should be 
thorough. Little fertilization is 
necessary, for the plants grow well 
on poor land and are able to ob- 
tain their supply of nitrogen from 
the air. Soy beans grow better 
on sandy or loam soils than on 
heavy clay. Inoculation with the 
proper bacteria is necessary for 
the best success in new districts. 
The tubercles of the soy bean are 
large, and they store up consider- 
able nitrogen in the soil when the 
plant is grown under proper con- 
ditions. 

When the crop is to be culti- 
vated, the rows should be from 
23/2 to 3 feet apart. As the plants 
stand upright, they can be culti- 
vated longer than cowpeas. Three 

or four cultivations are usually sufficient, though the number 
depends on the soil and the season. Seed should not be 
sown till after danger of frost is past. It may be sown up to 
July 1 in the Central states, and three or four weeks later 
farther south. The rat« of planting varies from 13/^ to 2 
pecks in rows to 4 pecks when sown broadcast. 

500. Harvestmg. The methods of harvesting differ 
but little from those described for the cowpea. The plants 
should not be allowed to get too dry in the swath, or there 
will be considerable loss of seed and leaves. As the seed 




Figure 127. — Soy bean plant. 
Note the nodules on the 
roots. 



876 FlKUi ( /;()/\s 

8ha((iM-s ivndily, it must bi^ out lu^toit* nil i\\c potls inntiuv, 
olso u\uol\ of it will bo Kv^^t. 8n\;ill pints may bo pullotl by 
hauil niul tlit* sihhI bonton out with n tlnil. Lai>i;or lioUls 
n\ny Ih> thiVvshtnl with tln> oiviiuary tlutvshiuu; u\.'U'hint> ov 
\\\\\\ tho sjHvial boan tluvshor. Tho sihhI should not 1h» 
sti^ivd in larij>> vpiantitit^s without plouty i>l' \ontila(ion, for 
it is likoly io boat, thus lowtaiuu; tho iit>rminatiou. 

601. Uses of the Plant. Tho usos o( iUv soy ixwu iwv 
moiv nun\orous tlian thoso o^ tlio oo\vih\i. As tho plants 
i::i\nv orov't, thi>y aiv oasily harvi\sttHi t\>r hay. Thoy aiv 
si>iuotiu\i^s sown witli soriihum. v*owih\is. or othor oix>|v< iov 
tho piXMluotion of n\i\iHl ha\ vm* sila4:;o. VUc finniin^" valuo 
of tlu> hay is aUmt tho samo as oow^va hay. though stork 
do not oat tho stoms and |hh1s as itwilily. As pastun\ thoy 
aiv hardly sv> c;\hh1 as oow^vas. Tho ^rain is vory rioh in i>il 
and pivtoin. but oontains littlo staroh. In oombii\ation witli 
oorn. thoy pVoduoo vtMv i\'ononiioal i:;ains whiai (cd to oattlo 
and hv\ii:s. As tho stwis aiv hard and not oasily orushod by 
stook, thoy aiv usually ii;i\>und and i(\\ as moal. In China 
and Japan, tho stwi of tho soy boan is .an import.ant artiolo 
of human food, .and is also usihI ii\ tho m.anuf.aotuiv of oil. 
So\ boans :nv now KMUi:: ustnl as b.akinl boans. oithor .alono 
or in ov>mbinativ>n witl\ navy bo.ins, .auil aii^ oi>minii" into ust* 
as human ioy\\ in tho I'nitcHl Statos in m.any v>thor ways. 
Hofoiv n\any yoars. tl\oy aiv likoly to booomo a oiMumon 
artiolo in our diot and thoir oultivation is oort.ain to inoiwaso 
immousoly. for tho usos o( this plant as oil. fixnl and forajj;o 
aiv vory numorous. 

THi: TKAM r 

502. The Peanut, Amchis Ay/\)«;oa. ditYoi*s fixMU tho other 
momlvrs of this family whii'h aiv oommonly I'liliivatoil in 
that tho stvd pods aiv pivdiu'od Ivlow tho surfaoo of tho 
ijn^und. Tho poanut is boliovod to bo a n:itivo of tropical 
South Amorioa. It is ono oi tho fow loijuminous plants 



JMI'(}HTA\'(JH O/' 1*1:AS!JTH 'ill 

native U) the \ew World which have fi>ijrid their way \i\U) 
cultivation. T\\<t plant \)r<MUi(yiiH iimny leafy HUmtH, from 12 
Uj is incheK tall, 'i'he leafletH are thn^^^ in nurnUir and alxjut 
1 inch ioni^. ^J'he fiowerH, which are imAncxA in thie axiln of 
tlie hranchrjH, are Bfrtall and yellow. AfU^r the flower falbi 
away, the Kt^^rn on which it i!:r(tw elonj^^at/^ and (inUtm the 
8^>il, and the fxxi or nut then fornix U^low the Kurfa/Xi. For 
thin r(rd,Hf)ri, \XiixrmtH (tan Uj j^rown U^:t on Kx^H^i wiila. 

503. Importance. While we ordinarily think of f>eanijt« 
only a« we cxmimonly wjf* thie roaste^i nuts for Bale on the 
.Htrefjt cornerH, the Kfjf}<^i i« largely UHe^i in the nnanufa/rture 
of oil and other artichjH, and the vine« rnake (txcAhtni forage 
for HU)<:k. I'he value of the [x^anut crop of the T.'nif/^i State-- 
in 1917 was HHtUnixUA at ^IW/XXi/XX), more tlian double 
the combinfid vahieft of the buckwheat and flaxfte^i^i crops 
that year. It is largr^ly pnAacAifd along the Atlantic coa«t, 
the sandy Lan^ls there lx:;ing particularly iv(h±\)UA to it. 
The I'dfiihr fx>rtion of the rnjirket crop Lh grown in Virginia, 
North Caroliriii, G^xjrgia, AUbama, and I'exas. In n-jMui 
yaarH, the prrxiuction of j:x:rfinutH has very greatly iucrtfdJMA, 
tlie acreage in 1917 probably Ixjing at U^ai^t thn^^ times a« 
great as that in 1912. 

604. Cultivation. Peanuts grow Vxjst in a fairly fertile 
sandy loarn B<^jil which has lx^:;n well \)T(t\)ixr(A. TTiey should 
Ixi planUid in rows !:^) t/j ':>0 inch^:^: apart aftf:;r the s^jil is 
thoroughly warm in the spring, generally aftf:;r fxjrri tias Ix^n 
planted. The se^j^J of the larger varieties is usually shelWi 
before planting, but the Spanish peaniits are often phmUA 
without shelling. The one-row plant/cr \n commonly use<^i. 
The c-xmirnon rat/i of s^^:^Jing is 1 peck of shelk^i Spanish 
peanuts or 5 pecks in the shell, while \}/^ fXicks of shelk:;^] 
Virginia p^^anuts will plant an acre. AfU^r the plants are up, 
frequent sliallow cultivation should Ixj given to keep the srjil 
loose till the po^ls Ix^in to form. The ground should not l>e 
disturlxiii again till harvest. 



378 



FIELD CROPS 



505. Harvesting. When the greater part of the nuts is 
mature, the crop should be harvested; for, if left longer, the 
nuts which ripened first are likely to sprout. The plants are 
usually dug with a potato digger or are plowed out, though 




Figure 128. — The Virginia peanut, the type usually grown for the nuts. The 
Spanish peanut, which produces numerous small nuts, is grown for forage 



small areas on loose soil can be pulled by hand with little 
loss. After the vines are pulled, they are left to dry shghtly 
and are then put in small stacks to cure. These stacks are 
usually built around a framework which admits air to all 
portions of the stack. The top should be covered to prevent 
injury from rain, as the market value of the nuts is re- 
duced if they are discolored. 

After the vines are cured, the nuts are picked off by hand 
or removed by machinery, and are then cleaned and sorted. 



THE FIELD PEA 379 

The marketable nuts are put into large sacks for the market, 
while the smaller nuts are fed to hogs or other stock. The 
vines from which the nuts have been picked are of con- 
siderable value as forage. 

506. Uses of the Nuts. By far the greater part of the 
market crop of peanuts is used in the production of peanut 
oil, peanut butter, and other similar food products, salted 
peanuts, and various peanut candies, though the quantity 
of roasted nuts consumed each year is considerable. The nuts 
are also fed to stock, particularly to hogs. The Spanish 
yariety is often planted in the South for hog pasture, 
the hogs being turned in when the pods are mature and 
allowed to root out the nuts. As both the vines and nuts 
are eaten, this is a very economical method of producing 
pork. The peanut vines, especially if the nuts have not 
been removed, are very valuable as forage, and considerable 
acreages are grown in the South every year for this purpose. 

THE FIELD PEA 

507. Origin and Description. The field pea, or Canadian 
field pea, Pisum arvense, is a native of the region north of 
the Mediterranean Sea, and the latter name has been given to 
it simply because the plant is of more importance in Canada 
than elsewhere in America. It differs little in appearance 
from the common garden pea, except that the vines are 
larger and more vigorous than those of most varieties of 
the garden pea, and the flowers are usually pale purple or 
violet instead of white. The vines reach a length of several 
feet and some varieties branch quite freely. The pods, 
which are long and straight, contain several white or blue peas. 

508. Importance of the Crop. Field peas are mostly 
grown in the states on the Canadian border and in Colorado. 
One of the most important districts is the San Luis Valley 
in the latter state. In Ontario and other portions of Canada 
the field pea is much more generally grown than in the United 



380 



FIELD CROPS 



States. In the Northern states and in Canada, peas are 
usually grown in combination with oats or barley for hay, 
though they are also grown alone for the seed. 

509. Methods of Growing. The usual method of growing 
peas is to sow from 1 to 2 bushels of seed to the acre with 
a bushel of barley or oats, the grain furnishing a support for 

the pea vines and making them 
easier to harvest. The growth of 
peas is also better and they are 
less troubled with such diseases as 
mildew when they have some sup- 
port. The seed is drilled in on 
well-j^repared land as early in the 
spring as the ground can be worked. 
As the seed is much larger than 
that of the grains, it can be sown 
more satisfactorily separately than 
in a mixture, and the grain can 
be added by going over the field 
a second time. The common prac- 
tice, however, is to sow the two at 
one operation. The use of the 
grain drill is desirable in order to 
get the seed covered to the proper 
is sown, no further treatment is 




Figure 129. — Branch of field pea 
with pods and flowers. 



depth. After the seed 
required until harvest time. 

510. Making and Feeding the Hay. Field peas should 
be cut for hay when the pods are filling but before any of 
them are ripe. At this time the grain with which they are 
sown should also be in the proper stage for hay. The crop 
can be cut with the ordinary mower or with a mower with 
buncher attachment. Curing in the cock is preferable to 
long curing in the swath, for raking after the pods are dry 
is likely to result in the loss of much of the seed. The curing 
of the hay is not different from that of similar hay crops. 



THE FIELD BEAN 381 

The hay can be fed to stock of all kinds. In the San Luis 
Valley in Colorado, it is very largely used in the feeding of 
sheep. Grain and pea hay is excellent for dairy cows and 
for young, growing stock. Its feeding value depends to some 
extent on the proportion of peas and of grain, but it is richer 
than grain hay alone. Pea vines are about equal in feeding 
value to clover hay. 

511. Other Uses of Field Peas. Peas and oats or peas 
and barley make excellent pasture for cattle, sheep and hogs, 
particularly if the stock is not turned in until the plants are 
nearly mature. Hogs and sheep will make large gains and 
there will be little waste if the crop is allowed to mature 
before the stock is pastured on it. This combination crop 
is sometimes put into the silo, and silage of high feeding value 
is produced. As a soiling crop, peas and grain have no 
superior for early feeding in the northern part of the United 
States. As the plants make a large volume of organic mat- 
ter rich in nitrogen, they are excellent soil improvers when 
turned under as green manure. The grain may be fed whole 
to sheep or hogs or may be ground into meal. For hogs, 
grinding is advisable. 

THE FIELD BEAN 

512. The white, or navy, varieties of the common garden 
bean, Phaseolus vulgaris, are grown under field conditions 
for the production of dried beans in some localities, more 
particularly in Michigan, New York, and California. It 
is estimated that the bean crop of 1917 was worth more than 
$100,000,000. The usual method is to plant in rows from 
30 to 36 inches apart, after the ground is warm in the spring, 
and give good cultivation during the growing season. Beans 
should not be cultivated when the leaves are wet with rain 
or dew, for they are much more likely to become diseased if 
disturbed when damp. The rate of seeding depends on the 
size of the beans, J/^ bushel to the acre being sufficient for 



aS2 FIELD i'h'Ors 

I ho n;ivy or pea bonns, wliilo jvs inucli ms m bushol of soino of 
(ho InrpM' kiiuis is roi^uirod. 

U luMi (ho lH\ms 'AW v\\H\ Wwy iwv hiwwMvA wi(h iUc 
hoivn hiWYCsiov, an iini)loinoii( wliioli runs jus( honoM(h ihv 
surface and ou(s (lio s(onis njul riH)(s, so (lia( (ht» j)lnnlsniay 
be gathored roacHly, Uvc fioin v:\v{\\ niul roots. If (ho vinos 
are praodonlly iload when harvos(o(l, (hoy may bo placed at 
onoo in W(Ml-buiU oooks, bu( if (hero are some j»;riHMi jnxls and 
loaves, (hoy sliouKl bt^ driiMl for a few hours In^fori* bunohinn'. 
These oooks are usually buil( around a i>olo abou( r> i'vci \\\ii}\, 
sharponcHl a( boOi (MuIs. Owe ond is stuck (irndy in (he 
p;round and a. buncli of ii;rass or \v(Hh1s is fasbMiod (o (lie 
o(hor af(tM* (ho oook is ooinpl(*(od, (o serve as pro(oo(ion from 
rains. As soon as (lio vint^s are dry, (liey should be removed 
carefully (o (he barn, where (he beans may be flailed or 
threshed out. The modern bean (hreshor removes the beans 
much more quickly and cheaply than (ho Hail. Af(er (he 
beans are threshed, (hey should be cleaned and j^raded, and 
(ho ii;ood beans placed in sacks for marketing;. The cull 
beans may (hen bo used as fooil for stock, while the market- 
able beans are an imj)ortant ar(icle of human diet. 

SWinCP CLOVIOH 

513. Description. The white sweet clover, McliJotus 
alba, is a conunon roadside plant j!;rowinj:; quite <>;onorally 
over the United S(a(os. It is a na(ive of Isuropo, bu( is 
widely naturalized in America. It closely resembles alfalfa 
in habit of growth, but is biennial, and the flowers are small, 
numerous, and produced in long spikes. 

514. Importance. Sweet clover is not generally culti- 
vated, (hough in some soc(ions it is grown as a forage croj) 
and soil renova(or, l(s principal use is for the latter pur- 
pose, as stock do not usually eat it readily, and unless cut 
early for hay the stems are coai'se and woody. The feeding 
value of sweet clover is nearly the same as that of alfalfa, 



cuLtuh/'J of hweet clover 



m 



but its \ii<ik of palatability niakitH it much 1(;hh valuaiJo in 
actual practiwj. Cattle and ho^H liowcver, will b(*cornc ac- 
customed to the taHte. The young plants are less bitU^r 
and rnay w(;ll b(j uH^jd for pastun;. 

515. Culture. VVhfjn it is denirfirj t<j grow sweet clover on 
p<K)r soil to irrifirove it, thf; hcauI is srjwn in the spring at the 
rat^; of about lo [)ounds to th(; acre;, and har- 
rowed in. In th(j South, it can \)(t sown aft(;r 
an early cro]) is harv(;st<}d. W the plants are 
plow(;d under the following spring brjfore blos- 
^rning, then; will be no difficulty in eradicat.- 
ing it, but if it is allowryl to sr;e/l it is likcily to 
give trouble. Thf; ^tcjl is so like; that of al- 
falfa, tliat it sorncitirncis is us(;d as an a^iiil- 
terant. 

Th(; sarnr; soils on which sweet clover 
thrives are usually adapted U) alfalfa, and as 
the same bactrjrium liv(;son the roots of both 
plants, land on wiiich swwit clover grows ordi- 
narily doe's not require; inoculation to produrxj 
alfalfa. Sw(;c?t clover, how(;ver, will grow on 
soils and in climat(;s when; alfalfa will not 
succ(;c;fj. 

Failure; to secun; a good crof), when culti- 
vated, may be; tlie n;sult of [>oor s(;(;d. The germinating 
power of the seed should always be tested. On account of 
its hard c;oat much of the S(;ed fails to germinaUi the first 
season. This plant also n;f|uires a firm senl. Of course the 
soil should be te»st(;d for lime. Sweet clover may be sown 
broadcast on rough or str^ny land, that is practically un- 
tillable. It may also be grown along river bottoms. 

This crop shouhi be pastured or cut down sufficiently to 
insure; an abundance of fresh shoots for grazing. When 
harvested it may be cut with a binder and shocked, or with 
a mower and stacked. Where more than one crop is ex- 




Fi^uro l.'iO. — 
Swftfct clover. 



;5S4 



FIELD CROPS 



pcciod tlio first should bo cut when it is about .SO inclu^s 
lui;h anil bol'oiv i\\v tUnvor buils luivo forintHl. A stubblo 
of 1 or f) inches should be loft. 

The iloHcato pm't of curing; is to prevent the leaves from 

shattering-. One should follow 
the j»;i*neral direct ions pven for 
o(h(M- clovers and alfalfa. 

Swec^t clover as a silage 
crop has beiMi satisfactoiy. 

THE miR CLOVERS 

516. The bur clovers jxi'e 

closely related to alfalfa, be- 
longing to the same genus, 
Maiiaiiio, but are annual in- 
s((\ul of perennial. They are 
low-growing i)lants with yellow 
llowers and j)rickly pods. The 
common sjxx'ies are Mcdicaiio 
nuu'ulata, or spotted uuhHi^, 
and ^fedicailo dcnticnlata, or 
toothed medic. Both species 
grow in the South, though the 
spotted medic is more com- 
mon. The toothed medic is 
grown in California. 
517. Use as Winter Pasture. A conunon practice in the 
South is to sow bur clover on Bermuda grass pasture in the 
fall. About the time the Bermuda grass is killed by frost, 
the bur clover begins to grow; in mild seasons it grows 
throughout the winter. It furnishes good pasture during the 
late fall and early spring months ami, if allowed to produce 
seed, will reseed itself. In this way, a perniancMit pasture 
is assured. As liie bur clover adds nitrogen to tho soil, the 
growth becomes heavier from year to year. 




Figure i;U. — Wliito Swoot Clover 
pl:ii\t six wooks old. Note the 
extonsive root sy.stoiuHlrcndvde- 
volopod. (,F. B.»7U7) 



JAPAN CLOVER 



mu 



618. Use as Green Manure. 15 ur clover is alsrj sown in 
cotton or oth(;r cAilUvaUtd fields in the fall and plowed undrjr 
the following Hfjriri^ as a ij^rcj'Ai manure crop. About 15 
fxjunds of clean s(;ed or 4() to f>0 pfjunds of se(id in the biir is 
sown U) the acre. If it in not plowed under the following 
spring till Kec^d is producxid, it will rjr>t \)<; necr-jHsary to rew;(}d 
it in the fall. 

JAPA.V CI/iVER 

619. Japan clover, or h^ptj^leza, Lespedeza striata, is a 
pative of Japan which is now commonly found on sandy wjils 
from Vir^ini i i') Texas. It is not usually sown, but, like blue 
p^HiSS and white clover in the regions farther north, it comes 
in and fills up the wast(i jilacc^. While the plant ordinarily 
grows only a few indices high, on good soil it reaches a height 
of from 15 to 18 inches, and m a promising hay plant. Its 
chief value is as gatherer of nitrogen on poor soil, and as a 
pasture; crop. It is an excel lr;rit addition to Bermuda pas- 
tures, for it grows well with Henri uda or other grasses. As it 
soon starts into growth again wlien grazed off, the quantity 
of feed it will produce during a season is surprising. In 
pasturcis it will usually rewjed itself. On richer lands where 
it is thick and tall (enough U) be cut for hay, some provision 
should Ikj made f(jr r(;seeding. Unciit strips should be left 
across the field or the first crop should be cut early enough 
to allow the sfjcond growth Uj mature w^jjd before frost. 

It Is not usually necessary to sow lespedeza seed in pas- 
tures. To introduce this plant (>r to how it on cultivated 
land for hay or as a renovating crop, 15 to 25 pounds of sr;(;d 
should be sown in the early spring and harrowed in. Most 
of the s(3ed is now produced irj Louisiana and Mississippi. 

THIO VK'J'CJHES 

620. Description. Though s^weral species of vetch an; 
grown in various parts of the country, the most comm(jn is 

25— 



sso 



FllH.n Cli*OPti 



{ho wintiM-. ov hiuvy votch, l'/* /</ villosa. This is sown in tho 
hito sunuutM- or t\irly t';ill ms a covor fro[> in oirhjirds or in 
t*onibin:i(ion Avitli fall 4;niin ns m foratit^ t'roj) for hay or ft)r 
soilini!;. Tlic^ xiMch plant product's a (railine; vino sovoral foot 
in liMiiitli. with nun\orons pinnatt> lt\ivos iH>nsistin^- of oight to 
foiutiHMi small loallots. Tho bhiish-pm'plo tlowors aro pro- 

(hii'Oil in rai'(Miu\^ in iho axils of tho 
loa\'os. Tho pods aro strai,i»;ht, ahont 
P .J incluvs loni»;, and contain jsoviMal 
brown or hlai'k woods. 

521. Culture and Uses. Whon 
sown for hay or as a wintor t'ovor 
crop and soil iniprovor, from 1 io Po 
hushols of votch sooil aro rotpiirod for 
an aero. (>ats ov hoardloss whtvd aro 
HOod jirains io «!;rtnv with votch for 
hay. whilo as a ct^vcr crop oi" ^rhmi 
niannro tluac is nothini!; bettor than 
ryo. Tho tinio to cut for liay dopiMids 
KiK'uro \A-2 nniryvotoh. uioro ou tlio n'raiu tliau ou tho votch, 

for it continues to i;row and produces 
siHnl i>vor a consiilorablo period. \'otch is somotimos 8own 
in the fall on Johnson i!;rass sod and cut the following!; suni- 
n\ta- for hay. By tho time tho .U>hnson j^rass is ready io cut 
the vetch will have reseodotl itself sutlicitMitl>' to produce 
another crop the followiui*; fall. 

The iireatest usefulness of winter viMch is in the South 
as a Ci>vcM* crop and soil im[)rover on poor lands, thoujj;h its 
bivst orowth is on fertile soils. In the Central and Northern 
states it must bo sown in late sununia- or early fall to prevent 
winterkilliuij;. As cultivation of orchards p;enerally stops 
about that time, this [)lant works in well as a cover crop to 
add nitroi;en. For the best i»;rowth of the orchard, it shonld 
be [>lowed undiM" early the l\>llowinii; s{>rini>;, t\>r if left to pro- 
duce seetl it will take moisture and plant food from tho trees. 




Tiir: vi:hvi:r in: an 



387 



'I Jll. VKLVI/I JiKAN 

622. The velvet bean, Slizolohium (kerinyianum, w a 
W'M\\\s()\)\('m\ i>l;tiit wfiicli tlirivfis alorij^ tho <^)iilf ToaKt and 
in Florida. 'J'ij(;n; it Ih an irnfK>rtant fr>raj^<; plant and Hoil 
n;nfivatr)r, aH it makoH a vory heavy p^n^wth and producoH 
nurnerouH nitroj^o,n-j^athr;ring tuberdeH. T\\<i vineH oft^;n 
j^row to ;i, l(;nti;th of 'M) 
ff5<;t or fnf>r(\ 'i'Jic; 
flowofH mh; in fluHtf^fK, 
pijrf>Ki in (;r>lor, arid an; 
fHllowc/J by Hhr>rt f>odK 
which are eovenjd witli 
black fuzz, r>r down. 
lOaeh pod (lontainH 
wtvtiral mottled white 
and brown H<^;dH about 
the nize of a eornrnr>n 
garden bcjan. ''i'he 
(^reaUjHt value of the 
v(}lve*t b(;an in an a 
f)ro(Jue(;r of v(;j^etable 

matter rich in nitrogen. Thcj lori}^, tanj^lo'd vinc»H make it 
rather rhfhcMjlt to harvest for foraj^c;. It will f>roduee j^ood 
Kize^i virifiH as far north as Virj^inia and Kc^ntueky, but 
does not produe(; s(;(}d except in the; Oulf KtaU^H. In vc- 
c(;nt y(;arH, how(;ver, twr> (;jirly VJirieti(;H, the; Oc^or^ia arifl 
th(; AlabarrjM., have; b(;(;n f)roduc(id, which mature va'A'A 
almost anywhrjn; in the; Oulf states. Thfjse are now ex- 
t(;nsively j^rown, the area in velvet beans in 1917 bein^ esti- 
rnat/ed as 4,019,fK)0 acres. 

LABORATORY AND FIELD KXERCISICS 

Thf; fjiifiiJH Hlioiild l><;corrj<; farniliur with hm many of the pkntH 
(liHCiWHcd in l,hiH ch:i\)U'X uh poHHihUj. MohI of thorn can Ix; grown to at 
leant a [)artJal HtaU; of nnatiirity alrnoHt anywhere in the United StaUiH, 




l-Kur« \'M. — ViAv'X Jxtnn ]itn.v<:n, flow<;r» and 
inn-j'fi uri'l iiiiiitirt; p'xln. 



388 FIELD CROP^ 

and at least a few plants of each (with the possible exceptions of the 
velvet bean and bur clover in the North) may well be grown on the 
school farm. They can be utilized as illustrative material in the fresh 
state in the field or dried and used in the laboratory at any season of 
the year. For growing; in the' northern })ortion of the United States, 
early varieties of cowpeas like New Era and of soy beans like Ito San 
should be selected. 

IIEFERENCES 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, Bailey, 

Farm Crops, Burkett. 

Forage and Fiber Crops in America, Hunt. 

Field Crop Production, Livingston. 

Productive Farm Crops, Montgomery. 

Forage Croi)s and Their Culture, Pijier. 

The Peanut and Its Culture, Roper. 

Peas and Pea Culture, Sevey. 

Clovers and How to Grow Them, Shaw. 

Forage Crops, Shaw. 

Forage Croj)s, Voorhees. 

Meadows and Pastures, Wing. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

278. Leguminous Crops for Green Manuring. 

289. Beans. 

318. Cowpeas. 

372. Soy Beans. 

431. Peanuts. 

441. Lespedeza, or Japan Clover. 

515. Vetches. 

529. Vetch Growing in the South Atlantic States. 

690. The Field Pea. 

693. Bur Clover. 

886. Harvesting Soy Bean Seed. 

797. Sweet Clover: Growing the Crop. 
. 820. Sweet Clover: Utilization. 

836. Sweet Clover: Harvesting and Threshing the Seed Crop. 



CHAPTER XXI 
ROOT CROPS 

523. Introduction. For convenience, all those foraj^e 
crops which are not included anion j^ the grasses and lej^umes 
are grouped under the class name of root crops, though not 
all are grown for their roots. Practically all thes(3 f)lants are 
biennials which during their first season's growth store up 
food in their roots or sterns to supply nourishment to the 
fruiting st(im the following season. Such plants as b(;ets, 
mangels, turnips, rutabagas and carrots are grown for their 
fleshy roots, which are really a thi(;kening of the base of the 
stem and the top of tin; taproot. 'Jlie head of cabbage is 
a mass of leaves closely folded togeth(;r, while kolil-rabi is an 
enlargement of the stem rather than of the root. Rape and 
kale are closely related to the cabbage, but do not produce 
heads. The area in ''root forage" for the entire United 
States in 1909 was less than 19,000 acres, with a total pro- 
duction of 254,500 tons. This includes only mangels, turnips, 
rutabagas and carrots. These root crops are produced most 
largely in Maine, New York, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minne- 
sota, Washington, and Oregon. 

THE BEET 

524. Classes. The beet. Beta vulgaris, has been de- 
veloped into four distinct types, in each of which there are 
many varieties. These are (1) the chard, grown for its 
thick leaf stalks, which are used as greens; (2) the garden 
beet, grown for its edible roots; (3) the sugar beet, grown for 
the production of sugar; and (4) the mangel or mangel-wurzel, 
for feeding to stock. We are here concerned only with the 
latter type. The sugar beet will be discussed in Chapter XXIII.. 

389 



:\\)o I'll' in ("/;(>/\s' 

525. The Mangel and the Sugar Beet. VUv luMMgi^l 
tlitVtMs iVoni tlu^ su,t;;ii' lu^cl in mnuy (*h:irjU'ltMS, 'Vhc root 
ol (lie siioMi" Ih>(M is I'niily unil'onu in s1imih\ luMiiii; largest. 
lU'.u" llu' crown ;nul (;i|HMiiig ufMcluMlly lo a loni;' (aproot, 
while (hat i>i" \\\c niani;(^l is <)( wuious shaiH\s in Ww many 
varieties. The (U^sh o( {\\o siioar \)cvi is whi(t\ wliile^ (hat of 
(he luangt^l is usually n^ldish or yi^Uow. 'The skin of (he 
sugar IhhM is mIso whi(t^ (Ik* luangt'l may be red, whi(c\ gold- 
en, [)urplish. ov c\ci\ blaek. Thi* sugar bivt grows almos(. 
endn^ly below (lu» siu'lace o\' i\\v ground. whiU* in many 
vaiie(ii^s of ma!\g(^l half or mori* o( (he roo( is abo\(* (he sur- 
faee, making i( much t^isiiM* to harves(. W'l^U-grown sugar 
beets wcagh from 1 to 1 ' •_> pounds; mangx^ls should wiagh 
fii>m I (o I) pounds. The sugar bee( eon(ains abou( 20 pcM" 
('en( o\' st>lids, t)f which about four fifths is sugar; (he mangel 
contains only abt>ut I'J jier ccni of solids and not mon* (han 
(> per cent of sugar. 

526. The Soil and Its Preparation. The best soil for 
beets is a rich loam or sandy loam. The nH)ts do not develoi) 
well in clay soils and are nion^ ditlicult (o harvest, whiU* veiy 
sandy soils do not retain suHicien( mois(uri\ Conditions 
are usually move fa\-orabK* in {\\o Xor(hern s(ates than else- 
where for the growth o{ mangels. (h>od i>reparation is 
(Essential to the protitable growth of the crop. The seeds arc 
somewhat slow to germinate and the plants grow slowly at 
tirst, so that i^mmv precautit)n should be taken to keep down 
weeds. Th(\v can best be prtntMidHl by planning a rotation 
which conlains crt>ps which aid in (he con(n>l of (hese pests. 
One which has Ihhmi successfully used in some sections con- 
sists of (1) corn. (2) barley, and (l>) mangels or some other 
root crop. The land is manured for the corn. I'his crop 
may be fed otY by hogs, if desired, as it will (hen be practically 
nMurned to the land. The cultivation o\' {\\c corn crop and 
th(* rapid growth and early maturity o'i {\\c barley all aid in 
subduing weeds. After the barley is harvested, the land is 



Heeding heeth 



:v.n 



plowed and then harrowe^I at intervals durinj^ tlui fall to kill 
any wor^^Js that appear. Tha easy prr;paralif)n of a p;ood 
wmmJ bed hdfi from wcjfjds Is thus insun;d for thr; he(itK which 
may be grown the following spring. 

The usual preparation for beets, whether or not the rota- 




Ki^urf; i'.i4. — MarjKelH profjuco a hf^avy yi*;ld U) th<; aero and HUpply a larj^e 
<lijantity of Hucculent f<;fcd for dairy cowh and other Mtock 



tion just given is follow(;d, is to plow the land in the fall and 
disk it deeply and thorouglily in the spring. From four to 
six harrowings and diskings are usually required to put it in 
profKir condition for s(i(Miing. 1'he land should be fertile. If 
it has not been manured for a previous crop, the application 
of a good supply of well-rotted manure is })eneficial. Fresh 
manure should not be used, as it is likely to contain many 
weed seeds. 

527. Seeding. The seed of the beet is prodiiced in 
"balls," or "bolts," which contain from one to five seeds. 
For this reason, it is impossible to regulate the rate of seeding 
perfectly, and hand thinning must b(; i)racticed to obtain a 



392 FIELD CROPS 

uniform stand. The seed may be sown with a one-row drill, 
tliough where roots are grown in any quantity the use of a 
drill which sows several rows at a time is desirable. Mangels 
are usually planted in rows ranging from 28 to 36 inches 
apart; the rate of seeding is from 6 to 8 pounds to the acre. 
The seed is covered about 1 inch deep, or deeper if necessaiy, 
to insure moisture for germination. Seeding should be done 
as soon as the ground is in good condition, which is about the 
first of IVIay in the Northern states, though on heavy soils it 
may have to be delayed till about May 20. 

528. Cultivation. As soon as the rows can be followed, 
the land should be cultivated. The best type of cultivator 
is a four-row one with knives that cut just below the surface 
of the soil. Cultivation should be repeated every eight or 
ten days till the tops meet between the rows. In order to 
obtain a perfect stand and prevent crowding, the plants must 
be thinned to the proper distance as soon as they are large 
enough, which is about the time the fourth or fifth leaf is 
produced. They should first be ''bunched," cutting out all 
the plants in the rows with a hoe except small bunches 1 or 
2 inches wide and 10 or 12 inches apart. After the plants 
have recovered somewhat from the ''bunching," but while 
they are still small, they are thinned by hand, all but the 
largest plants in each bunch being removed. The single 
plants should then be about 12 inches apart in the row. 
The bunching and thinning is slow and expensive work, and 
root crops are, therefore, not very popular among American 
farmers. It is more necessaiy for sugar beets than for other 
root crops, as uniformity is more important in that crop, and 
the seed is sown thicker to insure a full stand. Large yields 
being essential to the profitable production of root crops of 
all kinds, much depends on the preparation of the soil, its 
freedom from weeds, and the care which is given. 

529. Harvesting. Mangels should be harvested as soon 
as growth stops in the fall, which is when theouter leaves 



STORING MANGELS AND BEETS 193 

begin to wither. They should not be expose^! to severe 
freezes, though the first light frosts will not inj ure them. The 
roots should be removed from the ground without breaking 
or bruising them, for bruised roots soon decay. If necessary, 
they may be loosened by plowing a furrow close beside the 
row, or by a beet digger run under the row, but mangels can 
usually be pulled easily by hand. The tops are then twisted 
or cut off and the beets thrown into piles from which they are 
loaded into wagons and hauled to the root cellar or pit for 
storing. The tops may be thrown into windrows for curing, 
^s they make excellent feed for cattle, sheep, and hogs. If 
they are not desired for feeding, they should be scattered 
over the field and plowed under for fertilizer. 

530. Storing. Mangels and other roots should be stored 
as soon as harvested. For this purpose, a root cellar is 
desirable, though not absolutely necessar>^ Good ventilation, 
freedom from dampness, and a temperature just above the 
freezing point give the best conditions for storing. If a 
cellar is not available, the roots may be placed in a pit and 
covered with alternate layers of straw and earth, increasing 
the depth of covering as the weather becomes colder. 

531. Uses. Mangels are used as a substitute for corn 
and corn silage in the North and in high altitudes where the 
weather is too cool for that crop to succeed. The dr^^ matter 
in mangels is equal in feeding value to the dry matter 
in grain and is somewhat higher than that in silage. It is 
palatable and nutritious, and an unusuall}^ high proportion 
of it is digestible. IMangels are most commonly fed to 
dairy cattle, though they may be fed to sheep and hogs, if 
desired. As from 10 to 15 tons may readily be produced to 
the acre, the farmers in the Northern states can weU afford 
to raise more mangels and other root crops. 

CARROTS 

532. Description. The carrot, Daiicus carota, has finely- 
divided leaves, flowers and seeds in a dense umbel, and roots 



:5s)| 



/"//'//> C/ZO/'N 



of VMrious shM|H>s ;uul t'tilnrs. Mos( vnriolit^s (.m|>(M' from (l\o 
crown (v> (lu> tnproo(. ll»oui;h somo nro iTlindrical for mosl. 
o\' (luMr KM»^;(h. \\\\\\c «)ll»tMs mih^ short, .'ind (luck. 'Tlu* i'ol(»r 
ol ll\«> lK>sh .Miul skill uK'iv In* \vhi(t>. yollow, or.Mn,u;(\ or vv{\. 

('.Mirols iwr ij;ro\vii in onlv a 
liinilc*! wnv l\>r s(()ck IctHlini;, 
nu>s(lv loi' horst^s. TIumi' I'cimI- 
ini!. vmIui* is ;il>on( {\\v snnw^ .'is 
Mini of in;inu;(»ls. 

533. Ciilturo. ( '.iridls^row 
best ill ;i i\vc\) s.Miuly loMill. 
'I lie S(Hm1 \h\\ slionKI lu* well 
pii^pMitHl niul Uvc iVoin wi^cds, 
.MS L» (Min in.M 1 ion .Mini o.Mrly 
iTowdi ;iit* sK)W. riu^ rows 
slnMiKI lu" iVoni 'J 1 (o iU) inclics 
Mp.Mil Mild llu* i>lMn(s .Mhoiil 'A 
iiulicsnpnrl intluM'ows. h'roiu 
I (o (> pouiuls of sixmI is rt»- 
(|iiirod (o st)w an M.cr(\ 'V\\o 
nuMliods o( i>lMn(in.i»;. (Iiinninu;, 
(MillivMlinv. .'<nd liMr\M^s(iiio; mic 
no( dilVtMcnt from (luisojilroMdy 
i:;i\tui f(H* ni.Miii;tds. Cnrrols 
\ iidd from 10 to !2r> tons of 




Ki>l\no i;i.>, raiiMls lv>r stook Ircdini 



roottj and i> or I tons o( (ops (o (ho niMo. 

TIKXIPS \\n KITAPvAcrvs 

534. Description. 'Tlio (uniip miuI i\\c riitMl>M,u;.M jiro 
olosi^ly n^lMttvl phints o{ (ho .ii;tMius Iviissiid, which .mIso 
ini'hulcs iiuis(Mrd, rMpt\ nnd scv(M\m1 of our UMi'don V(\L!:tMMblcs. 
riic nUabasiM is l^rnssiui iiimfYsfris: i\\c turnip. Ivassiui 
rafMi. VUo roo(s o{ (miiips and iu(al>au;as \ary from tin* 
t1a((cni^l iorm (>!" (he common (mnip (o {ho loni:;. cylindricMJ 
*'i't>wliorn" lypc in sliapc. and ironi while to yellow, purple, 



rvriNii'tt A ,'//> ncTA r.A a a h iH 

and rc/i in color. 'J'ho flrr^fj j.H whiU; or ycWffw; it w uwjally 
whif/f; in tijrfiif;« and yt^lUfW In tMiaSumii^,. 'Vnru\\m mature 
rnon; <\\i\My, whilo njt?iha(</'iH havo a hij^her ff^yiinj? value 
and k^^^p \>i'XU-s. 

535. Culture. H,ut,ab;j.j(;j.H and \Mni\]/r'. j<row f-j^^-'.t in a 
coo), fnoi.Ht clirnat/; and in a .Handy loam :-/>il. 'i'he prepara- 
tion of the H/iil, H/^-/iin^,, cultivation, fiarvr#,tin|<, and Hioniiic, 
are nr^t different from thrj trrjatrnrjnt which ha« Uj^m rcjtoru' 
menderi fr>r uvAUv^ch. I'rorn 2 t/> .'> fK^undn of Uini'tp nud 4 
t/j 5 fK^unrlK of rutahajra w;*'/i in re/juin^i t/i the a^rre. A« 
turnif/H make thcjr j^rr^wth in from two t^i thrr^; monthn, they 
may f^; .'^iwn in the latx; Hummer and yet mature a crop 
U;forf; frwt. 'i'hr;y j^rr^w U^t in r^i^Kil weatfier, and for fall 
anrj winU;r uwj Hhould not he H^iwn till the latt/;r f>art of July. 
Rutaha^aH, orj the otfjcr h;j.nd, rr^^uire from four to nix 
monthn t^) reach maturity, and muKt U; w^iwn in May or June. 

636. Uses. TurnifiH and rutaha^raH are larvrely u«/yJ in 
Knj^Iand for Urc/Wu^^ to ntock, and t^> H^^rne extent in (lixna/iix, 
hut they are w;ldom ^rown for tFu'.H purfK;*^^? in the \li\\Ui\ 
Htat<^. 'i'hey are equa. in fr^*/iinj< value to manj^eln and 
other rrK;t crof^H, and tfie jrrain ration may U; maU^rially 
red(jcr;d when they are u.h/j'J. Jlutafjajf/A8 aref#.f>^^;ially (<«^x/i 
ffir U-^;\\u% to pij(H. Ah turnif/H do not kf^;p well, they nhould 
U; fed irj the early fall; rutaha^an may U? kept throii^j the 
wintxir without m«jch difficulty. When all the rrM crofjH 
are j^rown, turnif;H are uHually fed firnt, U;in(^ either pas- 
tured off r>r fed aH w>on a« thfjy are harvoHU'A; rutabagas 
are then uned till about .lunwhry 1, after whicfi tf]}xUit<-,\H fire, 
Huf>Htitut^^]. iiutal^ajras may be fed throujrhout the winter. 

CABBAGE AND KOifJ^RABI 

537. Culture and Uses. Cabbaj^e and kohl-rabi are dif- 
ferftnt formn of the name orij^inal plant, Hrassica oleraceri. 
In cabbajre, the ffx>d material in ntor^/l in the leaven, which 
frjrm a r;ompaet ii(;ad, whilf; in kohl-raf>i it in Hiorf/i in an 



396 FIELD CHOPS 

ciilar^eiiient of the stem, whit'h looks like a rutabiiga above 
ground. Cabbage is coininoiily grown as a garden vegetable, 
but is used to some extent for feeding to stock, while kohl-rabi 
is not extensively grown in America for any purpose. Cab- 
bage produces a large yield of succulent feed, which is best 
used by feeding direct from the field in the fall. Kohl-rabi is 
said to be more drought-resistant and to grow in warmer cli- 
mates than the rutabaga. These two are about equal in feed- 
ing value. Kohl-rabi should be sown in the same manner as 
the rutabaga and the plants thinned to about the same dis- 
tance apart, (^abbage may be sown in the garden early in 
the spring and transplanted to the field in June by hand or 
with a transplanting machine, or the seed may be sown in 
hills about 24 inches apart, dropping three or four seeds in 
the hill and later thinning to a single plant. The rows should 
be about 3 feet apart and the plants about 24 inches apart in 
the row. Cultivation is the same as for other crops discussed 

in this chapter. 

RAPE AND KALE 

538. Description. Rape, Brassica napus, is a quick- 
growing, leafy plant with stems from 2 to 4 feet tall. The 
leaves grow along the stem instead of from the crown as in 
many of the other plants of this genus. The variety which 
is conunonly grown in this country is the Dwarf Essex, a 
biennial type which produces seed only where the plants will 
survive the winter. Where it does produce seed, however, 
the yield is heavy, so that the seed is cheap, and as only 3 to 
5 pounds is required to the acre, the expense of seeding is 
small. Kale, or headless cabbage, one of the numerous 
forms of Brassica oleracca, grows in much the same form as 
rape, but has larger leaves and produces heavier yields of 
forage. It is grown as a forage crop only in the mild climate 
of western Oregon and western Washington. 

539. Culture. Kape grows best on rich, moist loam soils. 
Its growth is rapid, hence it is often sown broadcast, as it is 



USiiJH OF RAPE 397 

able to compete successfully with wckhIs. Larger yields are 
obtained, however, if it is sown in drills from 28 to 30 inches 
apart and given frequent cultivation while the plants are 
small. As the plant is a gross feeder, it can use large quan- 
tities of stable manure or other fertilizers. The yields from 
poor soil are liktjly to be disappointing, but the quantity of 
forage produced on rich soil is nuriarkal^le. Rape may be 
sown alone at any time (hiring the spring or early summer 
months, or with oats or oth(;r grain in the spring. Wh(;n 
sown with grain, not more than 1 or 2 f)ounds of rape seed to 
^e acre should be used. The rape usually grows slowly till 
the grain crop is removed, when it starts into rapid growth 
and supplies abundant forage. In wet seasons on rich soil, 
it sometimes makes such raf)id growth that much of it is 
harvested in the butts of the grain bundles, thus interfering 
with their proper curing. Sowing the rape a couple of ww.'ks 
later than the grain usually avoids this trouble, while the 
rape succeeds quite as well. As it survives frost well, it 
may be counted on for later pasture. 

640. Uses. It is customary to pasture rape, when it is 
sown either alone or with a grain crop. Occasionally, it is 
cut for soiling, })ut it is never cured into dry fodder. It is 
most larg(;ly used as pasture for hogs and shcx;p. Better 
results are obtained if stock are pastured on only a part of the 
field at a time, using movable fences or hurdles and changing 
the animals to different areas as necessary. Otherwise, much 
of the feed is wasted by the animals' tramping it into the soil. 
Rape is a succulent, palatable feed, very similar in composi- 
tion to the best perennial pasture crops, and as it produces a 
large quantity of forage in a short time, it should be more 
extensively used. Care should be taken to prevent bloating 
when cattle or sheep are first turned on it. When sown with 
grain crops and pastured after the grain is harvested, sheep 
will put on flesh rapidly, as they get the benefit of the glean- 
ings as well as the rape 



398 FIELD CROPS 

Kale is used quite extensively as a fall and winter soiling 
crop for dairy cows and other stock in Oregon and Washing- 
ton west of the Cascade Range. As the winters are mild, 
it may be cut at any time from October to April. 

LABORATORY AND FIELD EXERCISES 

1. Collect seeds of garden beets, sugar beets and mangels. De- 
scribe the differences definitely. Sprout some of these seeds also and 
compare character and number of sprouts. What bearing would the 
result of this observation have on planting? 

2. Compare the flesh, color, size, and shape of these roots. Dis- 
tinguish the tops carefully so as to be able to recognize them readily. 

REFERENCES 

Cabbage, Cauliflower, and Allied Vegetables, Allen. 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, Bailey. 

Farm Crops, Burkett. 

Forage and Fiber Crops in America, Hunt. 

Field Crop Production, Livingston. 

Productive Farm Crops, Montgomery. 

Forage Crops and Their Culture, Piper. 

Forage Crops, Shaw. 

Soiling Crops and the Silo, Shaw. 

Forage Crops, Voorhees. 



PART IV— MISCELLANEOUS CROPS 



CHAPTER XXII 
TUBER AND ROOT FOOD CROPS 

541. Introduction. The principal tuber and root food 
crops of the United States are the common Irish, or white, 

•potato and the sweet potato. The Irish potato, which is 
used as food and in the manufacture of starch and alcohol, 
is a tuber, or a thickened underground 'stem. Several of 
these are produced on each plant a little below the surface of 
the ground. They develop from offshoots of the main stem. 
On the other hand, the portion of the sweet potato which is 
used as food is a thickened true root. The white potato is 
most largely grown in the North, while the culture of the 
sweet potato is confined almost entirely to the South. 

THE POTATO 
HISTORY AND CLASSIFICATION 

542. Origin and History. The common white, or Irish, 
potato, Solanum tuberosum, is a native of the mountain val- 
leys of Peru and Chili. Some investigators believe that it 
has been grown in these countries for two thousand years, 
but this is merely a supposition. De la Vega found the Peru- 
vians cultivating potatoes in 1542, and sent some of the tubers 
to Europe. Several later importations were made into Spain, 
and from these the growth of potatoes has spread until 
now practically all the countries of the world grow this crop 
to a greater or less extent. The potato was introduced into 
Ireland in 1586, and soon became an important article of 
food, as indicated by the common name ''Irish" potato. It 

399 



400 FIELD CROPS 

was probably introduced into the United States during the 
colonization period by early Spanish settlers. 

543. Botanical Characters. The potato is a fibrous- 
rooted plant which is perennial by means of the tubers it 
produces. It is for these tubers that it is grown, and by 
means of them it is propagated. As the tubei-s will not 
stand freezing, they are stored over winter, and thus the 
potato is grown as an annual. The plants grow from 2 to 4 
or 5 feet long: the stems are smooth and somewhat angular. 
When the plant reaches its maximum length it is usually re- 
cumbent, with the leaves and branches stretching up from 1 
to 3 feet. The compound leaves vaiy with the different va- 
rieties and stages of growth. The leaflets are generallj' ovate. 

The white or purple flowers appear in terminal clusters. 
They are al:)Out 1 inch in diameter, with a five-parted, bell- 
shaped corolla. Each flower has five stamens and a two- 
celled pistil which occasionally matures seed. When seed is 
matured, it is often unlike the parent plant, because the 
flowei*s are cross-fertilized. ^lost of the new varieties of 
potatoes are obtained by planting this seed and making selec- 
tions from a large number of seedlings, most of w^hich are 
practically useless. Potatoes are most imiversally repro- 
duced from tubers, and when one ordinarily speaks of seed 
potatoes he has reference to the tubers and not to the true 
seed. Numerous sUght indentations, or *'eyes," are to be 
found on the surface of the tubers. These are most numerous 
at the ''seed" end, while there are comparatively few at 
the ''stem" end where the tuber was attached to the parent 
plant. It is from the buds in these eyes that new plants are 
produced when the tubers or portions of them are planted. 

There are about nine hundred species of the genus 
Solauum, but only a few are cultivated plants. The tomato 
and nightshade belong to this genus, and tobacco belongs to 
the same family. Potatoes and tomatoes are so closely re- 
lated that the branches of one may be grafted upon the other. 



VARIETIES OF POTATOES 401 

544. Varieties. There is a very large number of different 
varieties of potatoes. Some are distinct types, but many of 
them are simply new names given by seedsmen to old 
standard varieties, for the purpose of encouraging their sa^e. 
While the varietal characteristics are quite pronounced, it is 
not always possible to distinguish even between well-known 
kinds, because a variety will vary greatly if grown under 
different soil conditions, and especially if grown and selected 
by different individuals. Some of the desirable character- 
istics in potatoes are good yield and quality, medium size, 
smoothness, and shallow eyes. 

There are many different ways of classifying potatoes. 
They may be divided into early and late, white and red, 
smooth and rough, deep and shallow-eyed, or as long, flat, 
or round, etc. The most common classification, however, 
is early and late. Some of the well-known early varieties 
of potatoes are Early Ohio, BUss Triumph, and Early Rose. 
These potatoes will usually produce a crop in from 70 to 100 
days from planting. Some of the more common and gener- 
ally distributed late varieties are Rural New Yorker, Sir 
Walter Raleigh, Carman No. 3, and Burbank. These varie- 
ties, as a rule, yield more than the early varieties. They 
require from 100 to 130 days in which to mature a crop. 

IMPORTANCE OF THE CROP 

545. Worid Production. During the five years, 1909- 
1913, the average annual production of potatoes in the world 
was about 5,480,000,000 bushels. These figures place pota- 
toes in the lead of all other crops in the total number of bushels 
produced. The average production of wheat, corn, and oats 
for the same years was approximately 4,000,000,000 bushels 
each. Germany leads the world in total production of 
potatoes as well as in the average yield per acre. The six 
leading countries and their average annual production for 
the five years from 1909 to 1913 are as follows: Germany, 

26— 



402 FIELD CROPS 

1,682,000,000 bushels ; European Russia, 1 ,252,000,000 bushels ; 
Austria-Hungary, 702,000,000 bushels; France, 485,000,000 
bushels; United States, 357,000,000 bushels; and Great Brit- 
ain and Ireland, 254,000,000 bushels. The immense total 
world production indicates the very general and extensive 
use of this crop. The average acre yields obtained in some 
of the leading potato-producing countries during the ten years 
from 1904 to 1913, inclusive, are as follows: Great Britain 
and Ireland, 210 bushels; Germany, 201 bushels; France, 130 
bushels; Austria, 115 bushels; Russia, 106 bushels; and 
United States, 96 bushels. 

546. Production in the United States. As shown by 
the preceding paragraph, the United States produces only 
about 6.5 per cent of the world's crop of potatoes. For the 
five years from 1913 to 1917, inclusive, an average of 3,8 14,- 
000 acres was devoted to the potato crop of the United States, 
from which 366,131,000 bushels were produced, worth $322; 
511,000. The average annual acreage, production, and value 
of the potato crop in the leading states is shown in Table XIX. 

N. T. m^m^^^^i^m^m^mm^^^^^Kam 8.6% 

MICH. mmm^mmmm^i^^^^a^m^K^mmm 8.2% 

WIS. ^mm^^am^^^^m^^^^^^^mm 7.09% 

MINN. wm^am^m^ma^mmmmK^m^^^mM 7.7% 

MAINK ^^m^^^i^^^^^^mamm^m 7.1% 

PENN. wi^^mma^mmmmammimK^mm 6.5% 

VIRGINIA I^^BHBB^^^^ 3.8% 

OHIO ^K^^i^^m^mm 3.2% 

CALIF. ^I^^^B^^^ 3.0% 

IOWA ^am^mmmtmm 2.9% 

Figure 136. — Percentage of the potato crop of the United States which is pro- 
duced in each of the ten states of largest production, 1908-1917. 

Ten states produce nearly two thirds of the potato crop 
of the United States, as shown in the accompanying diagram 
(Figure 132). The remainder of the crop is distributed 
over practically the entire area of the country, potatoes being 
produced to some extent in every state in the Union. The 
states of largest production, however, are mostly along 
the northern border. This crop is of greater importance 



ACRE YIELD OF POTATOES 



403 



in Maine than in any other state, occupying more than 5 per 
cent of the improved farm land. 

547. Acre Yield. The yield per acre obtained in the 
different states varies greatly. With the exception of Maine, 
the states which produce high yields grow only compara- 
tively small acreages of potatoes. The average yield per 
acre is higher in Maine than in any other state. In the 
Rocky Mountain and Pacific states the yield is usually high, 

Table XIX. Average acreage, production, and farm value of 
potatoes in the ten leading states and in the United States during 
the five years from 1913 to 1917 inclusive. 



State 


Acreage 


Average 

yield 
per acre 


Production 


Farm value 
December 1. 


New York 

Michigan 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Maine 

Pennsylvania. . . . 

Virginia 

Ohio 

California 

Iowa 

All others 

United States 


Acres 

359,000 

353,000 

299,000 

282,000 

135,000 

281,000 

136,000 

153,000 

80,000 

140,000 

1,596,000 

3,814,000 


Bushels 

89.2 
83.8 
96.2 

100.4 

199.6 
85.4 

102.6 
77.2 

134.6 
75.2 
96.7 
95.7 


Bushels 

32,453,000 
29,972,000 
28,881,000 
28,328,000 
25,994,000 
24,038,000 
14,140,000 
11,867,000 
10,876,000 
10,664,000 
148,918,000 
366,131,000 


Dollars 

29,513,000 

21,006,000 

18,375,000 

17,956,000 

20,804,000 

23,629,000 

14,238,000 

11,877,000 

11,631,000 

9,476,000 

144,006,000 

322,511,000 



as the crop is grown under irrigation. Except California, 
Colorado, and Washington, none of these states produces 
potatoes in quantity. In most of the important potato 
states, the yield is below 100 bushels to the acre. 

SOILS AND FERTILIZERS 

648. Soils. Potatoes, like many of the other farm crops, 
are grown on almost all classes of soil. Medium Ught loams 
are best adapted to potato growing, and are likely to give 
the best quality of tubers, though some excellent potatoes 
are produced on very heavy clay. The greater portion of 
the crop is produced on the lighter types of soils. Sandy and 



404 FIELD CHOPS 

saiuly loam soils are especially desirable for producing 
smooth, clean potatoes of high quality. Such soils, how- 
ever, are quickly exhausted, unless kept up by the rotation 
of crops and by the application of manure. Any soil, to 
produce a good crop of potatoes, should be well supplied 
with vegetable matter, and be rich ami mellow to a consider- 
able depth. 

549. Manures and Fertilizers. Stable manure is one of 
the most desirable fertilizers for potatoes. It not only fur- 
nishes the necessary plant food, but helps to loosen the soil 
and to hold moisture, providing conditions very favorable for 
potatoes. On ordinary soils, a dressing of from 8 to 15 loads 
of stable manure to the acre, well-mixed with the soil, is a 
suitable application for the crop. Potatoes use much potash, 
but most soils are well supplied with this element. When 
commercial fertilizers are used, a complete fertilizer con- 
taining from 2 to 4 per cent of nitrogen, G per cent of phos- 
phoric acid, and 8 per cent of potash, is usuall}^ applied. 
Five hundred pounds or more of this fertilizer is applied 
to the acre, the rate depending upon the condition of the soil. 
In the South, where soils are subject to considerable washing 
and loss of fertility during all or nearly all the year, larger 
applications are usually made, often from 1,000 to 2,000 
pounds to the acre. On some of the lighter types of soils, 
or where leaching is at all likely to take place, the fertilizers 
are often added during the growing season. On account of 
the high prices of all fertilizers now prevailing (1918), smaller 
applications than usual are being made particularly of potash. 

GROWING THE CROP 

550. Preparing the Land. Soil for potatoes should, as 
a rule, be plowed deep, from 8 to 10 or 12 inches on the better 
soils. It is not desirable, however, to plow an extremel}^ light 
soil so deep, unless it has been heavily fertilized with stable 
manure, and the manure thorouddv mixed with the soil. 



. POTATO HEED 405 

Fall plowing Is to be preferred, thouj^h equally good results 
can usually be obtained if spring-plowed land is thoroughly 
prepared. If the land is plowed in the fall, it becomes dis- 
integrated and packed by scittling and from the action of the 
weather, and, when the upper surface is cultivated and put 
in good condition in the spring, a l>etter seed bed is obtained 
than is commonly the case with spring plowing. 

If land is plowed in the fall, it is important that it be har- 
rowed early in the spring to aid in warming up the soil and 
to conserve moisture. Fall-plowe^J land which is left hard 
awd compact for several wwiks after it thaws in the spring 
will probably l>e in poorer condition than well-cared-for 
spring-plowcj^J land. The fxjtato crop is capable of bringing 
comparatively large returns to the acre, and it is usually 
}>etter to exjxind more labor and fertilizer in getting the soil 
in first-class condition than is practical with grain and com 
crops, which do not give as large returns. 

In some places where pc>tatoes are grown in an intensive 
way and where large yields are very imp<jrtant, the land is 
plowfxJ in the fall and again in the spring. The fall plowing, 
which is comparatively shallow, aids in saving moisture, 
destroys many weeds and insects, and leaves the land open 
to the action of the elements during the winter. If manure 
is to \)e used, it is applied during the winter or in early spring, 
on top of the fall plowing, and thoroughly disked into the 
upr>er 3 to 5 inches of the soil. The land is then plowed in 
the spring 2 or 3 inches deciper than it was in the fall, and 
the plowing followed by thorough disking and harrowing. 
While this practice is not at all general, it is advisable in very 
many instances. 

551. Seed. Much profit is lost, under the common 
methods of growing potatoes, from the planting of poor seed. 
There Is some tendency for potatoes to ''run out" if grown 
on any but the very best soil, unless care is used in their se- 
lection. The first indication of the ''running out" of a 



406 



FIELD CROPS 



stock of potatoof? is soon in tho tiibors' hoconiinii; soniowhnt 
[Miu'hod or constnctod at tho sood oiul, antl 1oiii2;(m- in j)ropor- 

tion to (ho thic'knoss tlian 
is tvi)i('al of (lio varioty. 
()n(^ must have clearly in 
mind tho dosirablo typo of 
tho varioty, and soloct per- 
sist ontly to that type. If 
this ])olioy is followed, po- 
tatot^s may be grown suc- 
cossfully for years without 
(lolorioratioii or without 
havinji; to introduce now 
sood. Some of the desir- 
able typos of potatoes are 
shoMii in L'ii2;uro 187. 

The only condition 
whicli sooms to require a 
chaniio of seed is found 
in tho South. The condi- 
tion is not brouj2;ht about 
by deterioration in the 
stock but by tho difficulty 
exporioncod in koo])inj2; the 
sood till planting time, 
owing to the warm cli- 
mate. Much of the seed 
used in tho South is shipped in, and in Maine, Michigan, 
Minnesota, and some of tho other Northern states a good 
business has boon developed in providing sood stock for the 
South. This seed is usually stored in the North and ship- 
ped south only in time for planting. 

A point that must be considered in selecting seed pota- 
toes, especially if one is raising them for market, is the market 
demand. Too many growers have individual preferences 




FiRiire i;^7. — Types of potatoes. No, 1 is nn 
uiulosirablo type, invuvilar in ^!h!lpe niul 
with ilot'i) eyes. Tlie otiiers are smooth 
ami rt>^ul:ir ami Iiave shallow eyes. No. 
2 is Hmhaiik; No. 3 is Carman; No. 1 
is I'^ailv iMiio. 



PREPARING POTATO HEED 407 

regarding varieties and types of potatoes and try to raise 
potatoes that please them, without regard to the kind that 
the large buyers want; consequently they experience difTi- 
culty in selling their crop at gorjd prices. Buy(jrs, as a rule, 
want medium-sized, smooth, clean, shallow-ciycjd potatoes of 
goofl quality. If onf; takes into consideration the fact that 
it costs from 5 to 10 cents more to poxil a bushel of rough, 
uneven potatoes than of smooth, uniform ones, and that the 
loss in peeling the deep-eyed kind is v(;ry much greater, a 
very good reason will Ixi seen why th(5 dealers are willing to 
pay from 1 5 to 25 cents more; for potatoes of a good type. By 
growing only such potatoes as the market demands can one 
hope to secure the best prices for one's surplus. 

552. Preparing Seed for Planting. Potatoes always 
show a tendency to sprout as soon as the weather becomes 
warm. The production of sprouts that are long enough to 
break off in handling takes just so much plant food from the 
seefl tubers. Seed potatoes should be kept in a cool place 
during the spring, and stored so that air can circulate freely 
about them. A low temperature can usually be maintained 
in the root cellar or basement if the windows and doors are 
opened during the night and closed during the hotter part 
of the day. It is usually well to treat potatcxjs for scab be- 
fore planting (Section 568). 

553. Cutting Seed. ^Experiments have shown that pieces 
of seed potatoes weighing 2 or 3 ounces give better yields 
than smaller pieces. The general practice, however, is to 
plant about 10 bushf^ls of seed to the acre. To plant an acre 
with that quantity of seed, the pieces must be cut to about an 
ounce in size, if planted at the usual distances. One eye is 
sufficient for each piece. If one-ounce pieces are used, there 
will usually be more than one eye on each piece, but as a rule 
only one will grow to any extent, and so the additional eyes 
are not objectionable. When potatoes are grown on a 
large scale, they are cut with a machine with stationary 



408 FIELD CROPS 

knives so arranp;ed that a potato laid on top of the knives 
and pushed down over them will cut in pieces of about the 
right size. Occasionally pieces without eyes may be cut 
by this method, but so seldom that machine cutting is entirely 
satisfactory. When potatoes are grown on a small scale, 
they are usuall}^ cut by hand with a knife. 

554. Planting. The most common method of planting 
potatoes is in drills from 3 feet to SJ2 f^^t apart, with one 
seed piece dropped at intervals of from 14 to 20 inches. 
Planting in this way requires about 10 to 12 bushels of pota- 
toes to the acre. 

The time of planting naturally varies with the location. 
In the Northern states, potatoes for early market are planted 
as soon as the ground can be put in good condition in the 
spring. The later crop is planted at any time in May, and 
sometimes as late as June 15. Farther south, the planting 
may be done at any time from January to the first of April. 
Where two crops a year are grown, one is usually planted 
in January or February, and the second in July or August. 

The depth of planting will vary with the soil and kind of 
cultivation to be given. On the lighter soils, potatoes are 
commonly planted from 4 to 5 inches deep and given level 
cultivation. On heavier soils, especially where the land is 
a little too wet, they are planted more shallow and are hilled. 

Where potatoes are grown on a small scale, as for home 
consumption, they are usually planted by opening furrows 
with a common plow or with a winged shovel. The seed 
pieces are dropped in these furrows by hand, and covered 
with the harrow or the sulky cultivator. Where a large 
acreage is to be grown, a potato planter is commonly used. 
Some of these machines are supplied with pickers that pick 
up the seed pieces and drop them at regular intervals. This 
type may be operated by one man. Another type is known 
as the two-man potato planter; this requires a driver and 
an additional man Or boy to help in feeding to regulate the 



CULTIVATION OF POTATOES 



409 



drop. This latter type is regarded as more accurate, but is 
slightly more expensive to operate. These potato planters 
are equipped with a shovel which of>ens the furrow into which 
the seed pieces are dropped, and with disks which run behind 
and throw the earth on the row to cover them. A marker 
is provided to mark the next row as one is being planted. 




Figure 138. 



-The potato planter. A good machine to use where several acres 
of this crop are to be planted. 



555. Cultivation. The cultivation of potatoes is not very 
different from the cultivation of corn, except that potatoes 
planted in the ordinary way, from 3 to 5 inches deep, may 
be harrowed before the plants are large enough to cultivate, 
without danger of injury, as is not so true of corn. As 
soon as the rows can be seen, potatoes are commonly culti- 
vated with the ordinary corn cultivator. The deepest culti- 
vating should be done the first time through; for no injury 
is done if young plants are covered in the operation. In 
fact, covering is often practiced to protect early potatoes 
from a prospective frost. The subsequent cultivation should 
be sufficient to keep the surface soil in good mellow condition 



'1 10 FIELD (TROP^ 

ix\\(\ (lesli'oy all woods wiliioiil iiijiu'int;- tlu^ roots of tho pota- 
t()0!S. Oil (loop, i-ich, woIl-diniiHul land, (Jio potato roots arc 
likoly to ^low so dcM^p that thoroup;hly ftood cultivation 
may safoly ))o ^iv(Mi (o a d(^|)th of from 2 to 3 inohos. Culti- 
vation may l)o coiitiniKMl until prevented by the spread of 
the viiu^s. The later oultivations are usually p;iven with a 
on(vh()rs(^ fuKvtoodiod cultivator. 

566. Irrigation. y\s (lu^ potato crop gives large returns 
to the acre, it is (piite commonly grown on ii-rigated land. 
Tho method of planting in drills also greatly facilitates the 
process of getting water to the ci'op. Extremely large yields 
of potat(^os are obtained under irrigation; in fact, with the 
excoi)tion of Maine, tho states producing the largest average 
yields per acre are those in which the main part of the crop 

is irrigated. 

HARVESTING AND STORING 

557. Harvesting. As a i-ulo, ])otatoes are not harvested 
until thoy arc; rii)o; that is, until the vinos are onliroly dead. 
High prices, however, may make it profitable to dig early 
I)ot:itoes before they are fully mature, even though a smaller 
yield is obtained. Whore only a small acreage is grown, the 
croi) is commonly dug with a fork, the potatoes from two 
rows being thrown together. Potatoes may also be ])lowed out 
with a. common plow. Tlio potatoes that are thus ox])osod are 
pick(Ml up; then the land is harrowed and others are brought 
to tho surface. This method, however, is not in general use, 
because all the potatoes are not obtained. Whore large 
acreages are grown, a four-horse potato digger is commonly 
used. This machine is oquipixnl with a broad, sharp point 
which runs under the row and carries tho earth, vines, and 
potatoes over a chain oUn'ator through which the earth falls, 
leaving the potatoc^s to bo dropped behind. There are sev- 
eral different types of potato diggcMs, but all work on approx- 
imately tho same ])rincipl(\ Digging by machinery is by far 
tho most satisfactory wlioro there is much digging to do. 



PI CKING PO TA TOES 



411 



558. Picking. No satisfactory method of picking up 
potatoes by machinery has as yet been invented. Picking 
is done by hand, the picker using a basket, a bushel box, or 
a sack. Sometimes several baskets arc set on a stone boat 
and hauled between the rows with one horse, the pickers 
tossing the potatoes into 
the baskets. In Maine 
they are commonly gath- 
ered in baskets and then 
put into barrels for mar- 
keting. 

559. Sorting. Some 
small potatoes are always 
produced with the large 
ones, and often there are 
irregular, sunburned, and 
diseased tubers. If these 
are mixed with the good, 
smooth, uniform potatoes 
the quality of the whole 
crop is lowered. On this 
account most growers 
find it profitable to sort 
their potatoes, offering 
for sale only the best grade, and using the poorer ones for 
stock feed or for the manufacture of flour, starch or alcohol. 
Sorting is best done when the potatoes are being gathered, for 
at that time one can most easily reject the undesirable tubers. 
Machines for sorting are used to a considerable extent, but 
these of course can be efTective only in separating potatoes 
according to size. 

560. Storing. Potatoes keep best at a temperature be- 
tween 32° and 40° F., though necessarily they are often kept 
for a considerable length of time at higher temperatures. 
Early in the fall they are very commonly put in piles on the 




Figure l.'iO. — A good potato digger. 



412 FIELD CROPS 

ground in the field where they grew, the piles being covered 
with potato tops, straw, or hay, and a little earth. They 
may be kept in these pits until late in the fall, or even all 
winter, if necessary. If they are to be left throughout the 
winter, a pit is usually dug several feet deep and filled with 
potatoes and covered as stated above. As the weather gets 
colder, more earth or manure is piled on top to prevent 
freezing. It is always desirable in a pit of any kind to leave 
a small opening for ventilation. 

Potatoes are also often stored in cellars under houses, 
a practice not usually advisable, except for small quantities 
for home use, if unavoidable, because the cellar is likel}^ to 
be too warm and if any of the potatoes spoil they make con- 
ditions in the house very unhealthful for its occupants. Root 
cellars built separate from the house and potato warehouses 
are far better storage places. Root cellars are usually built 
underground and covered with a considerable depth of earth. 
Such cellars are usually cool in warm weather and sufficiently 
warm to protect potatoes from freezing in cold weather. If 
dry and well ventilated, they serve their purpose very well. 
Potato warehouses are usually built near railroad tracks so 
that shipments may be made from them at any time during 
the winter. The walls of these houses are usually made as 
nearly frost-proof as practical, and, if there is danger of 
freezing, stoves are used to raise the temperature slightly. 

MARKETING AND RETURNS 

561. Marketing. Potatoes are usually marketed as table 
stock, as seed stock, or as white or red stock, the prices for 
each kind depending upon the demand. By far the greater 
portion of the potato crop is marketed as table stock, and 
better prices are secured if carload lots of one type and variety 
can be sold. In many localities, small growers are seriously 
handicapped by the fact that it is practically impossible for 
their buyer to get a carload of uniform stock, hence all the 



COST OF PRODUCING POTATOES 413 

potatoes in the community, though they may be good in 
quahty, must be sold as mixed stock, bringing a compara- 
tively low price. Small growers are overcoming this diffi- 
culty by agreeing to grow but one or two standard varieties. 
The time of marketing is always a matter of judgment. 
Sometimes one can get better prices by holding potatoes for 
several months before selling, and again the price may be 
lower after that time. Those who grow seed potatoes for 
the southern market must provide some way of storing them, 
because the southern buyers do not want them until near 
planting time. Many communities in the North have or- 
ganized companies and have erected co-operative potato 
warehouses, that they may store their crop, if necessary, and 
ship when prices are best. 

562. Cost of Production. The cost of growing potatoes 
normally varies all the way from $20 to $50 per acre, de- 
pending upon the system of cultivation, price of labor, rent 
of land, number of sprayings given, and cost of fertilizer ap- 
plied. The Minnesota station found that in the potato- 
growing sections of that state, the average cost of growing 
potatoes on 331 acres of unfertilized land was $26.37 to the 
acre. On 237 acres of fertilized land in the same community, 
the average cost was $37.72 per acre. The items that must 
be considered in determining the cost of producing potatoes 
are plowing, harrowing, seed, cutting and treating seed, 
planting, fertilizers, cultivation, weeding, spraying, digging, 
picking, hauling, storing, sorting, machinery cost, and land 
rental. At present (1918), cost of production is much 
higher than is here indicated. 

563. Prices. There is a greater variation in the prices 
obtained for potatoes than for most of the other general farm 
crops, due to the fact that the surplus of one season cannot 
be carried over to the next. There is also a great variation 
in price during the same year in different sections of the 
United States, owing to the bulkiness of the crop and the 



414 FIELD CROPS 

cost of handling and transporting from one place to an- 
other. The average farm price for potatoes in the United 
States for the ten years from 1908 to 1917, inclusive, was 
76 cents per bushel. The average price in Texas for the 
same ten years was $1.27; in South Carolina, $1.32; in 
Florida, $1.36; and in New Mexico, $1.13. 

In this connection it may be noted that the states where 
such high prices prevail are those which grow very small 
acreages and produce comparatively low yields, and that 
all these states ship in potatoes rather than have a surplus 
to ship out. A large part of the crop of the Southern states 
is early potatoes shipped to the northern markets in early 
spring, when they often bring a high price. During the 
fifty years, 1866-1915, the highest average farm price of 
potatoes in the United States on December 1 was 79.9 cents, 
in 1911; the lowest was 26.6 cents, in 1895. In 1916, a year 
of general high prices and of a short potato crop, the 
average farm price was $1.46. The average acre value for 
potatoes in the United States for the five years, 1913-1917, 
inclusive, was $83.37. The highest acre values of the potato 
crop are found in the West and in Maine. The average 
farm value in Nevada for the five years mentioned was $163.12 
per acre, and in Maine, $158.58. The lowest value per acre 
was in Minnesota, the average being $62.98. 

564. Exports and Imports. The United States is still 
an importing nation ; that is, ordinarily there are not quite as 
many potatoes produced as are used. The average annual 
exports for the five years, 1912-1916, were 2,659,000 bushels; 
while the average quantity imported during the same years 
was 3,638,000 bushels. 

ROTATION 

565. Rotations for Potatoes. Potatoes fit into a rotation 
very much as corn does ; that is, it is a good crop to follow 
clover or grass and grain crops succeed well following it. 



Dlf^EASEfi AND INSECTSt 415 

Grain crops are slightly more likely to lodge following a pota- 
to crop, probably due to the fact that potatoes draw rather 
heavily on the potash supply and leave the soil more mellow 
and loose than corn. 

A very common rotation in the general potato-growing 
sections in the North is: First year, clover; second year, 
potatoes; and third year, grain. In this rotation the pota- 
toes are planted on clover sod, and if available, a good appli- 
cation of manure or commercial fertilizer is added. On light 
or worn soils, such a rotation is desirable, at least until the 
condition of the soil is greatly improved. In many cases, 
soils thus cropped have become so enriched as to cause suc- 
ceeding grain crops to lodge. The rotation may then well 
be changed to a 4-year system, introducing a crop of corn 
following the potato crop. Such a rotation would then be: 
First year, grain; second year, clover; third year, potatoes; 
fourth year, corn. The two cultivated crops, corn and pota- 
toes, usually draw heavily enough on the fertility so that the 
succeeding grain crop will not grow too rank and lodge. 

In the South, the supply of vegetable matter is main- 
tained usually by growing cowpeas or some other green 
manure crop, preceding and following the potato crop. A 
2-year rotation commonly followed is: First year, corn 
and cowpeas followed by rye; second year, Irish potatoes 
followed by winter vetch or crimson clover. 

DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES 

566. Blight. The more prevalent diseases are blight, 
scab, and internal brown rot. Blight appears in two forms, 
the early and the late. Early blight attacks the leaves of 
the potato plants early in the season, and gradually spreads 
until the entire plant is killed. It is usually first seen as 
dark spots on the leaves. Late blight attacks the plants in 
a somewhat similar manner, but considerably later in the 
season. It first affects the plants near the ground and 



416 



FIELD CROPS 



spreads rapidly upward; the diseased parts quickly turn 
black and wilt. The spores which fall from the leaves to 
the ground may infect the tubers and cause them to rot, thus 
completely destroying the crop. 

Blight is controlled by spraying the potato vines thor- 
oughly with Bordeaux mixture several times during their 




Figure 140. — Spraying to prevent disease and insect injury is an important part 
of modern potato growing. 



growth. Bordeaux mixture is made by dissolving 5 
pounds of high-grade stone lime in 25 gallons of water and 5 
pounds of blue vitriol (copper sulphate) in 25 gallons of water 
in another receptacle. When the blue vitriol is completely 
dissolved, the contents of the two. barrels are poured together 
and the mixture is complete. Care must be taken that suf- 
ficient lime is used, or the mixture may injure the plants. 
The treatment has no effect after the disease has started, 
but is a preventive which must be used often enough to pre- 



DISEASES AND INSECTS ill 

vent the germination of the blight spores. The common 
practice is to spray the crop first when the vines are from 
6 to 8 inches high, and repeat the spraying every ten days 
or two weeks, or often enough to keep the vines well coated 
with the mixture. There are some sections where blight 
is not sufficiently troublesome to warrant spraying, but in 
most instances it proves profitable. 

567. Internal Brown Rot. In some sections and in some 
seasons, internal brown rot causes immense losses, while in 
other sections the disease is hardly known. The disease 
usually gets into the soil with the seed potatoes, or it may 
live over in a soil that has produced diseased potatoes. It 
may be seen when tubers are cut open as a dark brown streak 
around the potato a short distance from the surface. 

The only remedy for this disease as yet known is to make 
sure that clean seed is planted. Care must be used in cutting 
seed to let nothing get into the field that shows any indications 
of the disease. A rotation of crops which provides for the 
growing of potatoes but once in several seasons on the same 
soil is also effective. 

668. Scab. Scab, which attacks the outside of the 
tubers, causing rough, unsightly blotches, also does immense 
damage throughout the country. The disease may be car- 
ried over in the soil or on the seed. As it works on the out- 
side of the tu])ers, it may be controlled by treating the seed. 
Potatoes that show any indications of scab should be treated 
before they are cut. Mix 1 pound of 40 per cent formalde- 
hyde in 30 or 35 gallons of water and soak the seed potatoes 
in this solution for two hours. If the soil is infected with 
scab, potatoes should not be planted on it for several years. 
Plowing under green manure crops which will develop acid in 
the soil is somewhat effective in destroying the spores. 

569. Insects Injurious to Potatoes. There are numerous 
insects which affect the potato crop. Cutworms, wire- 
worms, and grubs often attack the crop on sod land. 

27— 



1 1 S FIELD CROPS 

The control of these pests has been discussed under corn. 
By far the most troul)lesome insect is the potato bug, or 
Colorado beetle. The mature beetle lays its eggs on the 
under side of the leaves of the potato. The larvae feed on the 
leaves and if not checked will strip the plant, thus prevent- 
ing further growth. These beetles cause an immense loss to 
the potato crop throughout the United States every year. 
Potato beetles are usually controlled by spraying the vines 
with Paris green, arsenate of lead, or arsenite of soda. By 
far the most common poison is Paris green. This is mixed 
in water at the rate of from 1 to 4 pounds in 50 gallons, and 
sprayed on the vines either by hand with a whisk broom, 
with a small knapsack sprayer, or by a large horse sprayer 
that will spray several rows at a time. The machine em- 
ployed usually depends on the extent to which the crop is 
grown. It is important that the solution be applied quite 
thoroughly to all parts of the plant, and in sufficient strength 
to be sure to destroy the beetles. The use of a poor grade 
of poison or of a weak solution may make the work ineffective. 
Early and effective spraying is imperative. Spraying for 
both blight and beetles may be accomplished by mixing poi- 
son with the Bordeaux mixture, instead of with water, and 
applying both at one operation. 

IMPROVEMENT OF THE CROP 

570. Crossing. Improvement in potatoes is commonly 
accomplished in two ways, by selecting new varieties grown 
from seed and by selecting the best tubers from the best hills 
of some of the common varieties. If seed produced on potato 
vines is planted, there will be great variation in the plants 
which are obtained. This variation gives the breeder a wide 
range from which to select. Crosses between two varieties 
of known characters are sometimes made artificially with a 
view to combining in one variety the good qualities of both. 
The desired results are not always secured, as the poor quali- 



THE SWEET POTATO 419 

ties of two varieties crossed are as likely to predominate 
in the progeny as the good ones. Good results, however, are 
sometimes obtained from intelligent crossing and subsequent 
selection, some of our leading varieties of potatoes having 
been produced in this way. 

571. Selection. Breeding by selection is by far the most 
common method of improving varieties of potatoes, and one 
which may be practiced with profit by any careful grower. 
It is based on the fact that the productivity of individual 
tubers in a variety differs. By selecting those tubers which 
qjppear to be best and then comparing their productivity by 
planting them in a uniform field and harvesting the product 
from each tuber separately, those which produce large yields 
of good quality may })e preserved and propagated. 

The method of selection most practical on the average 
farm is to observe a large number of hills as they are dug and 
save for seed the tubers from hills that produced the largest 
number of desirable potatoes. Many experiments have 
shown marked improvement from such methods of selection. 

Large potatoes are preferable as seed. 

THE SWEET POTATO 

572. Origin and Description. The sweet potato is a 
native of the New World and quite probably also of eastern 
Asia, as it was cultivatcnl in China in early times. It was 
not known in Europe till after the discovery of America. 
The edi})le portion is a true root, one of the few roots 
used as food. The plant is a member of the Convulvulaceae, 
or morning-glory family; the species is Ipomea batatas. The 
plant produces numerous running vines several feet in length, 
with smooth, shining leaves about the shape and size of those 
of a morning-glory. The edible roots are produced in a 
cluster just beneath the surface of the ground. Sweet pota- 
toes are reproduced from sprouts from the roots or from cut- 
tings of the vines, and not from seed. 



420 



FIELD CROPS 



573. Varieties. The varieties that are commonly grown 
in the more northern states are of the Jersey type, inckiding 
the Big Stem, Yellow, and Red Jersey varieties. The pota- 
toes are rather short and thick, with light yellow flesh, which 
is Hkely to be rather dry, especially late in the season. In 




Figure 141. — Five varieties of sweet potatoes: 1, Black Spanish or "Nigger 
Choker;" 2, Long, cylindrical type; 3, Jersey group, spindle shape; 4, Red 
Bermuda; 5, Southern Queen. The last three are most desirable in shape. 



the South, the ''j^am" type of sweet potato is the more popu- 
lar. The varieties of this tj^pe are much sweeter and moister 
than those of the Jersey type; the flesh may be light yellow, 
orange, or mottled. The individual roots are usually short 
and thick, though they may be very slender in some varie- 
ties. The most popular varieties of the yam type are South- 
ern Queen, Georgia, and Red Bermuda. 

574. Importance. The area annually devoted to sweet 
potatoes in the United States is about 600,000 to 700,000 
acres, though in 1917 it was 953,000 acres. The production 
in 1917 was 87,141,000 bushels. As the crop requires at least 



80ILH AND FERTILIZERS 421 

four and one half months without frost for its growth, with 
plenty of warm weather both day and night, its culture is 
confined largely to the Southern states, though it may be 
grown for home use as far north as southern New York and 
from there westward to Iowa and Nebraska. Sweet potatoes 
are grown principally in the South Atlantic and Gulf states, 
the leading states being Alabama, with 178,000 acres in 1917, 
producing lG,020,0fXJ bushels; Georgia, with 125,000 acres; 
North Carolina, 90,000 acres; Mississippi, 85,000 acres; and 
Texas, 84,0(X) acres. Among the other districts where the 
cfop is grown on a large scale for market are New Jersey, 
eastern Maryland and Virginia, and near Merced, California. 

575. Soils and Fertilizers. The best soil for sweet pota- 
toes is a sand or sandy loam with a clay or clay loam subsoil. 
The loose surface soil allows the roots to develop, while the 
heavy subsoil retains the moisture and prevents the forma- 
tion of long slender roots which are not marketable. Soils 
of this nature tend to produce the rather short, spindle-shaped 
potatoes so much desired for the market, of the type shown 
at the center in Figure 141. The sweet potato will grow in 
very poor soils, though it will yield Vjetter in those of moder- 
ate fertility. The lands should be rich enough to produce a 
good growth of vines and foliage, but too much manure or 
too rich soil will tend toward the production of a heavy top 
growth with only a few small, undesirable potatoes. The 
quantity of commercial fertilizer which is ordinarily used is 
small, only from 200 to 500 pounds to the acre. The use of 
crimson clover or some other legume in the rotation is de- 
sirable to furnish the necessary vegetable matter in the soil. 

576. Growing the Plants. Sweet potatoes are ordinarily 
grown from sprouts from the roots rather than by planting 
the roots themselves in the field, though this latter practice 
is followed to some extent in the South. The usual plan is 
to start the plants in a bed of warm soil or in a hotbed and 
remove them for setting in the field as they become large 



422 



FIELD CROPS 



enough. As the roots continue to send up shoots for some 
time, a comparatively small number will produce sprouts 
enough for a considerable area. Half a bushel of seed will 
supply 1,000 good plants at the first pulling. The best 
plants are usually produced in a moderate hotbed from 




Figure 142. — -The type of sweet potato plants suitable for setting. 



roots buried about 3 inches deep in leaf mold or rather loose 
earth. Before setting in the field, the plants should be pulled 
carefully from the bed and bunched in baskets or boxes. 
They will keep much better if they are ' 'puddled" by dipping 
the roots in a thin mud of clay and water, but the tops of 
the plants should be kept dry. Sweet potatoes may also be 
propagated from cuttings of the vines, which root readily. 
If only a few plants are wanted for home use, it is often easier 
and cheaper to buy the plants than to grow them. 

577. Preparation of the Soil. The right type of soil for 
sweet potatoes is easily prepared. It should be plowed some 



SETTING SWElfT POTATOES 423 

time previous to give it time to settle, and disked and har- 
rowed sufficiently to put it in good tilth. As good drainage 
is essential to success, ridge culture is practiced if the land 
is not naturally well drained. Planting on flat or unridged 
land is less expensive and just as satisfactory unless drainage 
is needed. The ridges, which should be SJ/^ or 4 feet apart, 
may be made by throwing furrows together with a plow. 
This preparation should be made long enough before planting 
to allow the land to become firm again. Just before the 
plants are set, a light harrowing will put the land in good 
condition. It should then be gone over with a marker which 
indicates the rows (if the land is not ridged) , and the distances 
at which the plants should l^e set in the row. For level 
culture, the plants are usually set about 2 feet apart each 
way, though they may be 23/2 ^y 2 feet or even 23^^ by 2}^ 
feet. Plants are usually set about 16 or 18 inches apart when 
planted in ridges. It is not necessary to mark the rows if a 
transplanting machine is used. 

578. Setting the Plants. The plants should not be set 
in the field till all danger of frost is past. The setting may 
be done by hand or with a transplanting machine. If the 
plants are to be set by hand, the work can be hastened by 
opening a shallow furrow down the line of the ridge or along 
the mark. The principal things to observe in setting are to 
have the roots and the soil moist and to press the earth 
firmly about the plants. Planting as soon as the ground can 
be worked after a rain or putting about a half pint of water 
in each hole will help materially in getting a good stand. 
Only strong, well-rooted plants should be set. 

579. Cultivation. The cultivation of sweet potatoes is 
not different from that given to most other cultivated crops. 
The surface of the soil should be stirred often enough to 
prevent the growth of weeds and to hold the soil moisture. 
One or two hoeings may be necessary to remove the weeds 
from the rows. Shallow cultivation should be given after 



424 FIELD CROPS 

each rain till the vines cover the ground quite completely, 
when the field should be "laid by" by throwing some earth 
toward the row at the last cultivation. 

580. Digging. Sweet potatoes should be dug before frost, 
as they are easily injured. If the vines freeze before they are 
dug, they should be cut away at once to prevent the frozen 
sap from going back into the roots. The potatoes are usually 
plowed out, a rolling coulter being used to cut the vines. 
Care should be used in harvesting and marketing to avoid 
injury to the potatoes. The ordinary potato digger is quite 
Hkely to bruise them, and a bruised sweet potato does not 
keep long. The potatoes are usually picked up by hand and 
carried to the packing shed for grading. Those which are to 
be shipped some distance are generally packed in ventilated 
barrels, while those which are marketed near by are sold in 
baskets or crates. For winter storage, a dry room or cellar 
maintaining a temperature of 35 degrees F. is best. 

581. Uses. Sweet potatoes are ordinarily used as food 
for man, and may be prepared for the table in many ways. 
They form one of the principal articles of food throughout 
the South, where they are much more generally used than 
are white, or Irish, potatoes. The vines have some slight 
value as feed for stock, and some of the coarser varieties of 
potatoes are grown for feeding to hogs and other animals. 
When these varieties are grown for hog pasture, they are not 
dug, but the hogs are turned in and allowed to root out the 
potatoes. While they grow well on this food, the hogs must 
be given some corn in order to fatten them. 

LABORATORY AND FIELD EXERCISES 

1. Obtain at least 100 potatoes of some standard variety and select 
from them the 10 that best represent the variety. Compare these with 
any that show signs of running out as indicated by elongation and 
pinching up of the seed end. 

2. If possible, obtain a sample of potatoes affected by internal 
brown rot. Cut open several tubers to become familiar with the effect 
of the disease and to learn to identify it. 



REFERENCES 425 

3. Obtain 10 pounds of medium-sized, smooth, shallow-eyed pota- 
toes, and 10 pounds of rough, deep-eyed potatoes. Carefully pare both 
samples, noting the time required and the appearance. Weigh the 
pared potatoes of each sample. What was the percentage of waste in 
each and what was the difference in time required to peel the two 
samples? 

4. Dig 100 hills of potatoes in a field where all hills were grown 
under as nearly uniform conditions as possible. Note the weight, uni- 
formity, character, and proportion of marketable tubers in each hill. 
What would be the yield and value of an acre of potatoes planted in 
the usual way if all hills were like the best? If all were like the poorest? 

5. Set stakes beside hills of growing potatoes on which the foliage 
has been destroyed by bugs or blight, and by others with foliage unin- 
jured. At digging time note yields from the marked hills. The results 
will emphasize the importance of spraying. 

6. Obtain three potatoes of about the same size of each variety 
commonly grown in your community. Put them all in a uniformly 
heated oven and bake until one variety is well done. Remove all po- 
tatoes and examine as to baking and quality. Is there any reason why 
buyers prefer a car of potatoes of one variety to a car of mixed varieties? 

REFERENCES 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, Bailey. 

Farm Crops, Burkett. 

Southern Field Crops, Duggar. 

Sweet Potato Culture, Fitz. 

The Potato, Eraser. 

The Potato, Grubb and Guilford. 

Field Crop Production, Livingston. 

Productive Farm Crops, Montgomery. 

The Potato, Gilbert. 

A B C of Potato Culture, Terry and Root. 

Potatoes for Profit, Van Ornam. 

Scientific Potato Culture, Young. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

324. Sweet Potatoes. 

544. Potato Tuber Diseases. 

548. Storing and Marketing Sweet Potatoes. 

753. Commercial Handling, Grading, and Marketing of Potatoes. 

847. Potato Storage and Storage Houses. 

953. Growing Potatoes under Irrigation. 

970. Sweet Potato Storage. 



CHAPTER XXIII 
SUGAR PLANTS 

582. Introduction. The two leading sugar plants of the 
world are the sugar beet and sugar cane. Sugar cane has 
been cultivated for many centuries. The development of the 
sugar-beet industry dates back little more than a hundred 
years. The cultivation of sugar cane is confined to the 
tropical and semitropical portions of the world. The sugar 
beet is a plant which normally succeeds best in temperate 
climates. The production of both cane and beet sugar has 
increased enormously in the past twenty years, reaching its 
maximum in 1913-14, when the estimated sugar production of 
the world was 20,704,000 short tons. Of this, 11,270,000 
was cane sugar, and 9,434,000 tons was beet sugar. The 
production of cane sugar usually considerably exceeds the 
production of beet sugar. 

THE SUGAR BEET 

583. History and Description. Reference has already 
been made to the sugar beet in the chapter on root forage 
crops. It is one of the several forms of Beta vulgaris, of which 
the mangel is another. The sugar beet is a broad-leaved 
plant with a long taproot. The upper part of this root and 
the base of the stem are thickened. The root is broadest a 
little "below the crown and tapers very gradually, as shown 
in Figure 143. The flesh and skin of the sugar-beet root are 
white, and the root grows almost entirely below the surface. 
A good root weighs from 1 to 13^ pounds, and contains about 
20 per cent of solids, of which about four fifths is sugar. The 
plant is a biennial; seed is produced by storing the roots over 
winter and setting them out the following spring. 

426 



IMPORTANCE OF SUGAR BEETS 427 

The development of the beet as a sugar-producing plant 
dates to about 1800, when German chemists began to experi- 
ment in the production of sugar from plants which could be 
grown in temperate cHmates. The increase in sugar content 
of the beet root from 6 to about 16 per cent is the result of 
careful breeding. The beet-sugar industry has been and is 




Figure 143. — Sugar beets of the most desirable type. 

an immensely valuable one in Germany and other European 
countries, and it is rapidly developing in the United States. 
584. Importance. Of the 8,757,000 tons of beet sugar 
produced in the world from the 1914-15 crop, 6,469,000 tons, 
or nearly three fourths, were produced in Germany, Russia, 
and Austria-Hungary. The development of the beet-sugar 
industry in the United States is of comparatively recent 
date. It was not till 1906 that the production of sugar from 
beets in this country exceeded that from sugar cane. In 
1900, the production of beet sugar amounted to 76,589 long 
tons, while that of cane sugar was 278,470 long tons, or 
nearly four times as much. In 1910, the production of beet 



42S FIKLD CHOPS 

supiar had ivacliod 150.000 tons, whilo thai of cano 8iiii;ar was 
oil, 000 tons, only about two thinls as much, in 1017, Iho 
production of beet sugar was 7()r).000 short tons, and of cano 
sugar only 235, OlK) tons. The average^ area of sugar boots 
harvested in the United States for the live years fioni 1013 
to 1917 was 001,000 acres, with a production of 5,729,000 
tons of beets, from which 1, 5(H), 210, 000 pt)unds of sugar were 
made. In the past ten years the area devoted to the crop 
h;v^ increased fi*oni 398,000 acres in 1910 to 874.000 acres in 
1915, the production of sugar from 1,199.000,000 pounds to 
1,748,(X')0,000 pounds, and the numbtM- o{ factt>rit\s from 
sixty to ninety-one. 

Colorado was the leading state in prtxluction in 1917, 
with fifteen factories and 4()8,()0(),000 pounds of sugar. (Cal- 
ifornia wtis second with 118,050,000 pounds, ITtah third witli 
U)7,321,0(X) pounds, jMichigan fourth witli 128,491.000 
pounds, and Idaho tifth with 77,000.000 [)ounds. In addi- 
tion, there were 21 other factories in other states, scattered 
from Illinois to Washington and Oregon, with a, total pro- 
duction of 222.0(X).000 pounds. The area of sugar beet pro- 
duct ion in this country is capable of wide extension, while for 
sugar cane it is comparatively limited. 

585. Culture. The culture of sugar beets differs little 
from that of mangels (Section 520). The crop grows best in 
a loam or sanil>' loam soil. Good preparation is essential, as 
the seed is rather slow to germinate. The land should be 
as free iis possible from weeds, because the heaviest expense 
of production is for cultivation. The seed is ordinarily 
sown with a beet drill which sows several rows at a time. 
The usual distance between the rows is from 20 to 28 inches. 
Where the ci-op is irrigated, the beets are often sown in 
double rows 1 foot apart, with a space of from 24 to 28 inches 
between each pair of rows. To insure a full stand, 20 pounds 
of seed to the acre is required. Seeding should be done 
early in May. 



HUOAR BEET HEED 429 

Cultivation whould be be^^uri as Hoon as the rows can ha 
followed, and continued at intervals of six or eight days until 
the tops meet between the rows. A special cultivator which 
cultivates several rows at a tinrie is in comnnon use. In 
order to obtain a p(;rfect stand and prevent crowding, the 
plants must Ixj thinned at about the time the fifth ](;af is 
produced. They are bunchcjd and then thinned by hand 
in the same? manner as already described for mangels, except 
that th(j distance between the plants is about 8 inches. 1'he 
beets should be harvestcjrl before danger of frost in the fall, 
and should bcj prrjlectcjd from fr(K;zing. I'he tops are ordi- 
narily twisted off by hand and th(.' beets thrown into piles, 
from which they are hauled to the sugar factory or shipping 
station, ^rhe tops are usually curerJ for fcjeding io cattle 
or other sto(;k. If thfjy are not needed as forage, they should 
be spread on the land as f(;rtilizer. 

The highest fxjrcentage of sugar is produced when there 
is plenty of moisturr;, particiilarly during tlie early growth, 
with abundant sunlight. 1'hese conditions are found most 
commonly in the irrigated districts of the liocky Mountain 
and Pacific states, though the Northern states generally 
present favorable; conditions for tlie growth of sugar beets. 

586. Production of Beet Seed. Sugar beets for seed 
production are selected }>y taking small samples out of the 
side of the root with a trifjr and determining the percentage 
of sugar they contain. Only those which show the proper 
sugar content are retained for planting. The hole made 
by the trier should };e filled with charcoal or clay to prevent 
decay. The roots should be stored over winter in sand in a 
dry cellar or pit, tested the next spring for sugar content, 
and then planted in rows in the field to produce seed. From 
three to five roots are required to produce a pound of seed. 
Eighteen to twenty pounds of sugar h)eet seed per acre is 
sufficient for a good stand. A large part of the sugar-beet 
seed sown in the United States is now produced here. 



430 



FIELD CR0P8 



587. The Manufacture of Sugar. After the beets reach 
the factory, they are washed and trimmed, and are then cut 
into long strips called "cossettes." The juice is then ex- 
tracted from these cossettes by means of hot water, leaving 
the by-product known as beet pulp. A small quantity of 
lime is then added to the juice; the impurities combine with 




Figure 144.— A mill for the manufacture of beet sugar. This factory has a capa* 
city of 15,000,000 pounds of sugar a year. 



it and solidify, and are removed by filtering. The purified 
juice is then boiled down; when it thickens sufficiently, it is 
placed in pans within a vacuum and boiled until the sugar 
crystalhzes. The grains of sugar are now separated from the 
molasses by placing the "mass-cuite," as the product is called 
as it comes from the vacuum pans, in a centrifugal machine 
lined with fine sieves. The whirling action of the machine 
drives the molasses through the sieves and the sugar is re- 
tained. The wet sugar is heated to drive off the extra mois- 
ture, after which it is ready for market, while the molasses 
is again boiled in the vacuum pans until the sugar it contains 
crystallizes. This second sugar or mass-cuite is dark in 
color, and is mixed with fresh juice to hghten it. It is then 
boiled again in the vacuum pans and the sugar extracted. 
The molasses from the second boiling is used for stock feed. 



SUGAR CANE 431 

588. By-products and Their Value. Beet pulp, the cos- 
settes or strips of the beet roots from which the sugar has been 
extracted, contains about 90 per cent of water and 10 per 
cent of sohds, so that it is nearly equal to mangels in feeding 
value. The pulp is relished by dairy cows, and makes an 
excellent substitute for corn silage. If it is combined with 
clover or alfalfa hay when fed to beef cattle or sheep, com- 
paratively little grain is required. Toward the close of the 
feeding period, grain should gradually be substituted for 
the beet pulp, finishing the fattening on hay and grain with- 
4)ut pulp. Dried beet pulp is supplied by some factories. 
This keeps much better than wet pulp and is much hghter to 
handle, one pound of it being equal in feeding value to about 
eight pounds of wet pulp. Beet molasses alone is not pal- 
atable, but it is often mixed with pulp before drying, the 
dried molasses beet pulp being about equal in feeding value 
to the dried pulp without the molasses. Beet molasses is 
also mixed with chopped hay or straw for feeding to stock. 

SUGAR CANE 

589. History and Character. Sugar cane, Sacckarum 
officinarum, is a perennial grass growing from 8 to 15 feet 
high, with solid, heavy stalks like corn. The flowers are in 
silky, plume-like terminal panicles, but seed is seldom pro- 
duced. The plant is grown for the juice which the stalks 
contain, and from which sugar and molasses are made. 
Sugar cane has long been cultivated in tropical countries, 
and until quite recent years was the principal source of sugar. 
It is probably a native of southeastern Asia or some of the 
adjacent islands. 

590. Sugar Content. The sweet, or saccharine, matter is 
confined to the stalks and is greatest near the middle, de- 
creasing at the ends, but more particularly near the top. For 
this reason it is most profitable to save the upper portions 
of the stalks for replanting, though sometimes the whole 



432 FIELD CROPS 

cane is used. The saccharine content and the purity of the 
juice depend on the soil, the cUmate, and many other factors. 
The stalks consist of fiber and juice. A large proportion of 
fiber naturally means a low sugar content, hence stalks with 
short joints are undesirable on account of the extra fiber they 
contain. Dry seasons also lower the sugar content, because 
the joints are shorter and the juice more scanty. In order 
to insure a plentiful supply of water, the crop is quite com- 
monly irrigated. 

591. Countries Which Produce Sugar Cane. The pro- 
duction of sugar cane is confined entirely to tropical and semi- 
tropical regions, as the crop requires a long, hot season with 
plenty of moisture for its best growth. The world's pro- 
duction of cane sugar averaged about 10,950,000 short tons of 
2,000 pounds each during the five years from 1911 to 1915, 
inclusive. Of this enormous quantity, Asia produced nearly 
half, or 4,874,000 tons. The leading Asiatic countries in 
sugar production are British India, with 2,776,000 tons, and 
Java, with 1,521,000 tons. North America ranks next to 
Asia in production, with 4,456,000 tons, of which Cuba pro- 
duced more than half, or 2,741,000 tons. The production in 
the continental United States averaged only 242,000 tons; 
Hawaii produced about 598,000 tons, and Porto Rico, 
393,000 tons. Various South American countries contributed 
856,000 tons to the world's total, Africa 508,000 tons, and 
Australasia 314,000 tons. In the United States, the produc- 
tion of sugar from cane is confined almost entirely to southern 
Louisiana, though a small quantity is produced in Texas. 
It is grown in small patches in all the Southern states for the 
production of sirup. It is locally known as ''ribbon cane." 

592. Propagation. Sugar cane is propagated from sec- 
tions of the stalks. When these sections are planted, new 
stalks grow from the buds at the base of each leaf. There is 
considerable difference in the freedom with which different 
varieties grow from these buds; some grow from buds any- 



SOILS AND FERTILIZERS 433 

where on the stalk, others only from those near the top. 
The cane is usually cut into sections containing one or more 
buds, but sometimes the whole cane is planted. As the food 
stored in the stalk is used by the young plant till it becomes 
established, it is desirable to have the stalk in as good con- 
dition as possible. The canes of some varieties are very 
brittle and crack readily when cut, allowing disease and 
decay to enter, hence the entire stalk is planted to avoid this 
loss. The tops are best for propagation, as they grow most 
readily and crack less. 

In sections where frosts do not occur, the crop can be 
grown from the old stools for several years by splitting them 
into sections with a sharp plow or a tool specially devised 
for the purpose. In the southern United States, it is neces- 
sary to protect the canes from frost by cutting them in the 
fall and storing them over winter in a moist, cool place. 
The location should not be wet enough to cause the stalks to 
rot, nor cold enough so that they will freeze. The stalks 
are usually laid in piles and covered with the leaves which 
have been stripped from them. Sometimes they are laid 
in windrows between the rows from which they were har- 
vested and covered by plowing furrows upon them. In this 
case, the leaves are left on. This method of storing is satis- 
factory only in favorable seasons. In wet or cold years, it 
is quite likely to result in severe loss of the seed canes. The 
seed canes should be selected from places where the growth 
is good and which are as free as possible from disease. 

593. Soils and Fertilizers. Ordinary good soil is suit- 
able for the production of sugar cane. The land should be 
well drained, but should be so situated that it can be irri- 
gated readily. When the rainfall is very heavy, irrigation 
may be unnecessary, but it is well to provide for it in case 
of need. Open ditches are ordinarily used for drainage. 
The land should be plowed very deep, the deeper the better, 
even up to 20 or 24 inches. Traction plows are quite gen- 

28— 



434 FIELD CROP 8 

erally used in plowing, as the work is too heavy for horses. 
Quite frequently, however, large mules are used in prepar- 
ing the land and cultivating the crop. The demand for the 
largest and best mules on the sugar plantations is so great 
that they are commonly known on the market as ''sugar 
mules." After the plowing is done, good surface tillage is 
given till planting time. Stable manure is the best fertilizer, 
but it is not often available in large quantities. As most of 
the potash and phosphorus removed by the crop is returned 
in the ashes and waste from the sugar mills, nitrogen is the 
only element of fertility which it is necessary to purchase in 
quantity. Sugar, the only product removed, is composed of 
carbon and water, hence it takes nothing from the land. 
Nitrogen is lost in the burning of the stalks and leaves. 

594. Planting. Sugar cane is planted by laying the 
stalks in furrows from 4 to 6 feet apart. If the seed canes are 
in good condition, 2 feet apart in the row is thick enough to 
plant the pieces of stalks to obtain a good stand ; if its con- 
dition is poor, thicker planting is necessary. The ordinary 
method is to lay the cane horizontally in the furrow and 
cover it with a small plow or cultivator. Sometimes the crop 
is planted in hills by sticking the sections of stalks diagon- 
ally into the ground with the upper end slightly above the 
surface, while, if particularly quick germination is wanted, 
they are planted upright with the buds above the surface. 

595. Cultivation. Sugar cane is cultivated frequently 
to keep it clean of weeds and to insure rapid growth. As it is 
not planted in check rows, it is usually necessary to do some 
hand hoeing to remove the weeds within the rows. The 
cultivator used is usually of the toothed or shovel type, 
though in recent years disk cultivators have come into 
favor in some sections. Cultivation is continued till the 
ground between the rows is entirely shaded by the crop. 

596. Harvesting. The total sugar content of the stalk 
increases up to a certain stage of ripeness, which can only 



EXTRACTING BEET JUICE 435 

be determined accurately by chemical analyses of sample 
stalks. Naturally, it is important to harvest when the 
stalks contain the maximum quantity of sugar. Though 
chemical analysis is more certain, the grower learns to de- 
termine the best date for cutting quite accurately by the 
appearance of the stalk and the stage of growth. For econ- 
omy of production, it is desirable to continue the operation 
of the sugar mill over as long a period as possible. As the 
sugar content decreases quite rapidly after the maximum 
is reached and after the cane is cut, planters extend the 
season by planting varieties which ripen at different times, 
by planting on different types of soil, or by extending the 
planting season over a considerable period. 

The usual method of harvesting is to strip the canes and 
cut them off close to the ground with a knife. Machines for 
harvesting have been devised, but they have not proven 
satisfactory. As the canes begin to lose their sugar rapidly 
within 24 hours after cutting, they are usually hauled from 
the field to the mill as soon as cut. Numerous methods 
of transportation are in use, including boats, wagons, and 
tramways. One of the most common methods in large fields 
is the use of a light, movable track with cars drawn by a 
small steam engine. The cane is usually loaded upon wagons 
by hand ; it is then loaded into the cars by the use of a derrick 
and is unloaded in the same way at the mill. 

597. Extracting the Juice. The juice- is extracted from 
the stalks by means of heavy rollers. The stalks are first 
shredded by revolving cylinders set with numerous pegs or 
spikes, and then pass between rollers which crush out about 
75 per cent of the juice. They then pass on to another set 
of rollers, on the way to which they are sprayed with the 
heated juice from the third and last set The second set of 
rollers removes about 10 per cent of the juice, and the stalks 
then pass to the third set. On the way, the canes are sprayed 
with hot water. The third set of rollers crushes out about 



436 FIELD CROPS 

5 per cent of the total juice. The crushed stalks (bagasse) 
are then carried on a conveyor to the furnaces. Ordinarily, 
the bagasse supplies sufficient fuel to run the mill. 

598. Making the Sugar. The methods of manufacturing 
cane sugar are not very different from those already described 
for beet sugar. The juice is first heated and then purified 
by the addition of milk of lime, after which it is skimmed and 
filtered to remove the solids which have united with the lime. 
This refuse is returned to the fields as fertilizer, as it contains 
a large part of the phosphorus and potash removed by the 
crop. After it has been purified, the juice is concentrated 
by boiling in a series of vacuum pans and is finally crystal- 
lized in a larger pan of the same kind. The sugar is then 
dried and packed for market. The by-products of manu- 
facture and the various grades of sugar, sirup, and molasses 
are little different from those made from sugar beets. 

LABORATORY AND FIELD EXERCISES 

1. A few sugar beets may be grown in different plats of different 
soils and with different fertilizers on the same soil. Write out the 
results fully and carefully. Show how many pounds could be raised 
on an acre under each condition, if the plat average were maintained. 

2. Those who are interested in the production of sugar cane should 
visit a cane mill, if possible, and become familiar with its various pro- 
cesses and prodacts. 

3. Does your community and your state produce as much sugar 
as it uses? 

REFERENCES 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, Bailey. 

Farm Crops, Burkett. 

Southern Field Crops, Duggar. 

Forage and Fiber Crops of America, Hunt. 

Field Crop Production, Livingston. 

The American Sugar Industry, Myrick. 

Farmers' Cyclopedia of Agriculture, Wilcox and Smith. 

Sugar Beet Seed, Palmer. 

Sugar Growing in the U. S., Harris. 



CHAPTER XXIV 
FIBER PLANTS 

599. Classes of Fibers. The fibers we use are obtained 
from two general sources, animal and vegetable. Only two 
kinds of animal fiber are in common use, wool and silk, but 
there are numerous classes of vegetable fiber. The usual 
definition of the word ''fiber" makes it include not only the 
material used for spinning, but also that used for upholster- 
ing, weaving, and the making of paper. A classification of 
fiber according to use, as made bj^ the Office of Fiber Investi- 
gations of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, includes 
spinning fibers, tie materials, natural textures, brush fiber, 
plaiting and rough weaving fiber, various forms of filling, and 
paper material. Of these, the most important are the spin- 
ning fiber and paper material. Spinning fiber includes all 
grades from those made into the finest thread to the largest 
ropes. It is only the class of plants used principally for the 
production of spinning fiber that will be considered here, 
though these plants may also be used for several of the other 
purposes mentioned. 

600. What Spinning Fiber Is. Fibers, or wood cells, are 
an important part of all plants. The young, growing parts 
of plants are made up of soft-walled cells which have little 
strength and soon decay when removed or when the plant 
dies. The cells of the older and more permanent parts have 
thick, tough walls, and are of two kinds. One kind is placed 
end to end without partitions, forming continuous channels 
or ducts through the stems and other parts of the plant, thus 
providing for the movement of water and plant food. The 
other is the wood fiber cells, which are elongated, spindle-' 
shaped, and overlap each other so as to form a continuous 

437 



438 FIELD CROPS 

bundle. These cells make up what are known as the fibro- 
vascular bundles, which give strength and stability to the 
plant. The woody parts of trees and shrubs are made up of 
these bundles, as are also the fibrous portions of the stems of 
annual plants. Some plants produce simple cells on the 
surface of the seeds and other parts, which are called surface 
fibers and are sometimes of value for textile purposes. 

The more important textile fibers are either bast fibers, 
from the inner bark of such plants as flax and hemp, or sur- 
face fibers, from cotton. In addition, some textile fiber is 
obtained from the leaves and leaf -stems of certain plants, such 
as sisal and manila hemp. By far the most important of the 
plants which produce spinning fiber is cotton. The only 
others which are grown in the United States to any extent 
are flax and hemp, and flax is grown almost entirely for seed. 

COTTON 
DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION 

601. Origin and History. The most important species 
of cotton, the ordinary upland type grown in our Southern 
states, is supposed to be a native of southeastern Asia. Its 
general cultivation is of comparatively recent date, as it has 
been grown in China for only ten or twelve centuries, while 
its cultivation within the United States dates back but a 
century and a half. The importance of cotton as a fiber plant 
was decidedly limited, on account of the difl&culty of sepa- 
rating the fiber, or lint, from the seed, till the invention 
of the cotton gin in 1792 by Eli Whitney, an American. 
Before that time, it had been grown to some extent in Egypt 
and India, but had never been a serious competitor of wool 
and flax. The Indians of tropical America cultivated cotton 
at the time of the discovery of the New World, but they 
made little use of it. While it was introduced into the South- 
ern states before the Revolutionary War, its cultivation did 
not become general there till after the beginning of the nine- 



BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION OF COTTON 439 

teenth century. Since that time the growth of the industry 
has been rapid. (Section 607.) 

602. Botanical Description. Cotton belongs to the Mal- 
vaceae, or mallow, family, and is the only member of that 
family which is an important cultivated plant. There is 
a number of species of cotton, ranging in form from bushy 
herbs to trees. They are all natives of tropical regions and 
are probably all perennials, though the cotton which is 
grown in the United States has been developed into an 
annual. 

The ordinary upland cotton, of which by far the greater 
part of the crop consists, is Gossypium hirsutum. It is a 
vigorous annual plant, with a branching, upright stem and a 
taproot with numerous lateral branches. The depth to 
which the taproot penetrates varies greatly in different 
soils. In sandy soils it may reach a depth of 2 feet or more, 
while in heavy clay it may be only a few inches long or al- 
most entirely lacking. The laterals or feeding roots are 
only a few inches below the surface. The stem grows from 
2 to 6 feet high, according to the variety, the soil, and the 
season. The usual height is from 2}/^ to 33^2 feet. The 
length and number of the branches and the length of the 
internodes, or ''joints," depend on the same factors as the 
height of the plant. 

The leaves of cotton are alternate, from 3 to 6 inches long, 
with a width slightly less than the length, the lower ones 
heart-shaped, the upper more or less three or five-lobed. 
The flowers are large and showy, being from 3 to 4 inches 
across. They are white when they first open, but turn rosy 
pink on the second day, so that a field in bloom is very at- 
tractive. Cotton is commonly open-pollinated. 

The fruit, or "boll," is enclosed by leafy bracts when 
small, and is then commonly known as the ''square." It 
finally develops into a pointed, somewhat egg-shaped body, 
about the size of a small hen's egg, closely packed with seeds 



440 FIELD CROPS 

and lint. It is composed of three to five cells. When ripe, 
the boll turns brown and the cells separate along the central 
axis and also split down the back, so that the lint and seeds 
are exposed. The seeds, which are about three eighths of an 
inch long and half as wide, are thickly covered with lint 
and fine fuzz. The lint, which is the cotton of commerce, 
is from seven eighths to one and one half inches long in the 
ordinary varieties, the fuzz, or linters, one fourth inch or less. 
The seed consists of a thick seed coat, or hull, and an oily 
yellowish-white kernel. 

603. Other Species. Sea Island cotton Gossypium bar- 
badense, differs from the ordinary type in that it grows taller, 
has longer branches, yellow flowers, longer and finer fiber, 
and seeds free from fuzz. It is grown in the West Indies 
and on the islands and lower lands along the coast of the 
Carolinas and Georgia. Egyptian cotton is generally re- 
garded a variety of G. barbadense. It has a long, strong 
fiber and is very similar in many ways to Sea Island cotton. 
It is grown largely in Egypt, and has recently been grown 
successfully under irrigation in Arizona, and southern Cali- 
fornia. India cotton, Gossypium herbaceum has more slender 
stems than the ordinary upland type, leaves with rounded 
lobes, and smaller, less pointed bolls. The lint may be 
white, yellow, or brown. Its cultivation is confined to 
southern Asia. 

604. Cotton Fiber, or Lint. The cotton of commerce is 
the lint, or surface fibers, with which the seed is covered. 
The individual strands or fibers consist of single cells, ranging 
from 3^ to 23/^ inches long in the different varieties. Each 
fiber or cell is much twisted, a feature which distinguishes 
it from other fibers. It is estimated that there are some- 
times as many as five hundred twists to the inch. The fiber 
is very strong for its size and can be woven into a very fine 
thread, though not as fine or as strong as silk. The value of 
the lint depends on its color, cleanness, length, and strength. 



VARIETIES OF COTTON 



441 



The importance of cotton as a textile material is due largely 
to its cheapness and durabiUty. 

Ordinary varieties of upland cotton yield about 1 pound 
of Hnt to each 3 pounds of seed cotton; that is, 3 pounds of 
seed cotton will yield one third, or 33 per cent, of its weight in 
lint. The usual variation is between 30 and 35 per cent, 
though nearly 40 per 
cent is occasionally ob- 
tained. Sea Island and 
Egyptian cotton yield 
rather less, only about 
^0 per cent. Long- 
staple upland, a type 
with specially long, 
strong lint, yields less 
lint than ordinary up- 
land, but the value per 
pound is much greater. 
605. Varieties. The 
varieties of cotton are 
numerous, probably as 
many as two hundred 

names being known in the United States, though not all rep- 
resent distinct varieties. They differ in length of lint, earli- 
ness, productiveness, size of boll, and other features. The 
principal classes are the short-limb, or King, type, the big- 
boll type, and the long-staple type. The productiveness 
and earliness of cotton depend to a considerable extent on 
the length of the internodes and the length of the branches. 
The limbs appear in the axils of the leaves along the main 
stem and the flowers are produced on the secondary branches 
which grow from these main limbs. A type of plant with 
limbs close to the ground and with short joints is ordinarily 
earlier and more productive than one with fewer and longer 
limbs. 




Figure 145. — An open cotton boll ready for 
picking. 



442 FIELD CROPS 

The King type is early in maturing, is short-limbed, and 
produces small bolls. The big-boll type grows larger and 
ranker, the bolls are larger, and the crop is later in maturing. 
Long-staple cotton produces uniformly longer and more valu- 
able lint than the ordinary upland varieties. The small- 
bolled cottons pick easily but are readily damaged by storms, 
as the outer covering of the boll, the "burr," is thin and curls 
backward as the boll opens, exposing the seed cotton and 
giving it little support. On the other hand, the burr of the 
big-boll type remains flat and supports the seed cotton so 
that it is not easily dislodged. Among the better known 
varieties of the small-boll type are the Welborn, Peterkin, 
and King, while the big-boll, or storm-proof, type includes 
Russell, Truitt, Texas Storm-proof, and Jones Improved. 
The best known of the long-staple varieties are Allen, Griffin, 
and Cook. 

IMPORTANCE OF THE CROP 

606. Importance of the Crop. Cotton is not only the 
most important textile plant of the world, but it is one of the 
most important of the world's crops, for it furnishes many 
valuable products in addition to the lint from which cotton 
fabrics are made. The world's production of cotton is about 
21,000,000 bales or about 10,000,000,000 pounds of lint 
annually. The average annual production for the five years 
from 1906 to 1910 was 21,462,500 bales, of which nearly 
three fifths was produced in North America, more than three 
tenths in Asia, and about one fourteenth in Africa. Prac- 
tically the entire crop of North America was produced in 
the United States, the average annual production for the 
five years being 11,847,270 bales. India ranks next to the 
United States in the production of cotton, with a crop of 
3,778,320 bales; Egypt follows with 1,381,345 bales; and 
China with 1,200,000 bales. No other country is an impor- 
tant factor in the production of cotton. 



PRODUCTION OF COTTON 



443 



607. Production in the United States. The increase in 
the production of cotton in the United States since the be- 
ginning of the nineteenth century is one of our most re- 
markable records of progress. There has been a continual 
increase in the production of cotton since 1800, except in 
the decade from 1861 to 1870, when the war between the 
states practically demoralized the cotton industry of the 
South. The crop of 1864 was less than 300,000 bales, though 
five years previous the production reached 4,500,000 bales. 
In the decade from 1870 to 1880 there was a gradual recovery 
4n the industry, the average production being more than 
4,000,000 bales. Since then, the increase has been about 
2,500,000 bales annually for each decade. 

Figure 146 shows that the production of cotton is con- 
fined almost entirely to the Southeastern states. The aver- 
age area in cotton from 1908 to 1917 was 34,006,000 acres. 
The annual production of the United States was 12,813,000 
bales, and the average annual value of the crop about $828,- 
118,000. More than three tenths of the cotton acreage of 
the United States is in Texas. This state produced more 
than one fourth of the cotton crop of the country and more 

Table XX. Average acreage, yield per acre, and total production 
in hales of cotton in the ten leading states during the ten years from 
1908 to 1917, inclusive. 



State 



Texas 

Georgia 

South Carolina 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

Arkansas 

Oklahoma 

North Carolina 

Louisiana 

Tennessee 

All others 

United States . . 



Acreage 


Acre yield 


Total yield 


Acres 


Pounds 


Bales 


10,881,000 


163 


3,713,000 


5,111,000 


192 


2,063,000 


2,689,000 


220 


1,248,000 


3,490,000 


159 


1,193,000 


3,100,000 


176 


1,047,000 


2,350,000 


188 


923,000 


2,515,000 


164 


866,000 


1,475,000 


242 


754,000 


1,159,000 


165 


402,000 


817,000 


193 


330,000 


419,000 


198 


174,000 


34,006,000 


179.2 


12,813,000 



444 FIELD CROPS 

than 15 per cent of that of the entire world. Georgia, South 
CaroHna, Alabama, and Mississippi ranked next in the order 
named. In addition to the states shown in Figure 146 and 
in Table XX cotton is produced in Virginia, Florida, Mis- 
souri, Arizona, and California. The average acreage, yield 
per acre, and total production of cotton in the ten leading 
States during the ten years from 1908 to 1917 are shown in 
Table XX. 

TEXAS mmmmmmmmmammmmmi^^mmi^mmmi^^mmmmMm 28.98% 
GEORGIA w^^aa^amma^^^mmi^mmm 16.10% 

S. C. ■■■■■■^^^■^ 9.74% 

ALA. ^^^ammmmmmm 9.32% 

MISS. tm^^mmmm^^ 8.95% 

ARK. mmmtmmm^ 7.20% 

OKLA. m^mmam^ 6.76% 

N. c. ma^m^^ 5.88% 

LA. ^^^ 3.14% 

TENN. Wm^ 2.58% 
All Others i^ 1.35% 

Figure 146. — Percentage of the cotton crop produced in each of the states of large.st 

production, 1908-1917. 

More than two fifths of the improved land in farms in 
South Carolina and nearly two fifths of that in Texas, 
Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi is devoted to cotton. 
About 7 per cent of the improved farm land in the United 
States is planted to cotton, though its production is prac- 
tically confined to the ten Southeastern states. The total 
acreage of oats, a crop which is grown to some extent in every 
state, is only slightly larger than that of cotton, while the 
acreage in wheat is less than one and one half times the cotton 
acreage. Corn is grown on more than three times as much 
land as cotton. 

The average annual yield per acre for the entire United 
States for the period from 1908 to 1917 was 179.2 pounds. 
The lowest acre yield, 159 pounds, was that of Alabama, while 
the highest yield in the ten important states was shown by 
North Carolina, 242 pounds. Of the annual crop of nearly 
13,000,000 bales, about five eighths is exported. 



SOILS AND FERTILIZERS 445 

SOILS AND FERTILIZERS 

608. Soils Adapted to Cotton. The best crops of cotton 
are produced on the rich alluvial loams of the Mississippi 
Valley and the heavy clay loams of Texas. Cotton grows 
well, however, on a wide variety of soils, from the sands and 
light loams of the Carolina coast to the closest and stickiest 
of clay soils. Its growth and productiveness are largely influ- 
enced by the physical character of the soil and its fertility, 
and by the available supply of moisture. On rich, wet land 
a very heavy growth of stalks and leaves is produced, often 
aft the expense of seed production, so that the yield of lint 
may be less than on less fertile or on drier land. On the 
average, the largest yields of lint are produced on clay and 
alluvial loams with a moderate rainfall. 

609; Fertilizers and Manures. Because cotton is grown 
on so large a proportion of the cultivated land of the Southern 
states and because no regular rotation is generally followed, 
this crop is often planted on the same field for several years 
in succession. This practice, however, is much less com- 
mon now than it was a few years ago. On account of the con- 
stant growing of the same crop on the land with little or no 
effort to keep up the supply of vegetable matter and plant 
food, many of the fields are now more or less exhausted, so 
that they must be fertilized highly to produce a good crop. 
Whenever possible, a regular rotation should be followed 
which includes a leguminous crop to supply nitrogen. A 
number of excellent crops for this purpose are available, in- 
cluding the cowpea, soy bean, crimson clover, and velvet 
bean. Increasing the supply of vegetable matter and adopt- 
ing a proper system of crop rotation are the most effective 
methods of increasing cotton yields. 

When the nitrogen is supplied by a leguminous crop which 
precedes cotton, less of this element need be added in the 
form of commercial fertilizers. The use of a complete fer- 
tilizer is advised in all cases when the soil shows a tendency 



446 FIELD CROPS 

to hecoinc exhausted and wlien lep;uminous crops are not 
{♦•rown. Cotton seed was formerly larj2;ely used, but the 
ready market for it afforded by the oil mills has led to the 
substitution of other materials. As the oil in the seed is of 
no value as a fertilizer, the use of whole seed for this purpose 
is wasteful. A popular fertilizer normally is cottonseed 
meal, as it contains a good supply of nitrogen and some 
potash and phosphoric acid. It should generally be supple- 
mented with acid phosphate and muriate of potash, if avail- 
able, while a small quantity of nitrate of soda helps the 
early growth of the crop. 

Barnyard manure is used to some extent for cotton, but 
the available supply is usually limited, as the number of 
live stock kept on Southern farms is relatively small and 
that which is kept is confined for only a small portion 
of the year, so that most of the manure is dropped on the 
pastures. 

GROWING THE CROP 

610. Preparation of the Land. The methods of prepar- 
ing the land for cotton vary somewhat with different soils 
and in different sections, but the general plan is about as 
follows: The land is "bedded" early in the spring, that is, 
narrow beds arc made by throwing together two furrows with 
a small plow, alternating with narrow unplowed strips. 
Where the land was in cotton or corn the previous year, the 
''bed" is made between the old rows. The stalks are either 
cut up with a stalk cutter or are gathered and burned. Bed- 
ding helps to aerate and warm the soil and the furrows give 
drainage, so that it is advisable on poorly drained land. 
Later, but before planting time, additional furrows are 
thrown upon these beds from each side, but the entire mid- 
dle is sometimes not broken out till the first cultivation. 

When commercial fertilizer is applied, it is either sown 
broadcast on the field before bedding, or it is distributed 



PLANTING COTTON 447 

along the rows and the beds thrown on it a week or ten days 
before planting. The latter practice is the more common 
one. It is sometimes sown in the furrows at the time of 
planting, though some of the fertilizers which are used are 
likely to irijur(i the seed if they come in contact with it. 
Land is not always plowed before it is planted to cotton, 
though in recent years the; practice of plowing and planting 
fiat as corn is commonly planted has come into use in some 
sections. Fall plowing is frequently not advisable, on ac- 
count of the loss from leaching or erosion. The growing of 
a^^winter cover crop on cotton lands is an excellent practice. 
When a cover crop such as Inir clover or vetch is grown, the 
land is plowed early in the spring and the cotton is planted 
either without bedding or- low beds are made a few days 
before planting. In nearly all cases, larger yields are ob- 
tained by plowing the land from 6 to 8 inches deep early 
in the spring and harrowing and disking it every few days 
till planting time than }>y the methods in common use. 

611. Planting. The best grade of cottonseed which can 
be obtained should be used for planting. Good, heavy seed 
is just as important a factor in obtaining good yields of cotton 
as it is in corn or the small grains. The ordinary practice 
of taking the regular run of cottonseed as it comes from the 
gin, storing it with little or no attention over winter, and then 
planting heavily in the spring to assure a stand, is a bad one. 
While the extra seed has some value as a fertilizer, it is much 
more profitable to sell it and to use some other fertilizer. 

Instead of taking the ''gin-run" of seed for planting, 
the best portion of the field should be picked by itself each 
fall, preferably at the earlier pickings. This cotton should 
be ginned separately and the seed Ijrought back to the farm 
for planting the following spring. The seed should be spread 
out in a thin layer to dry, as it heats readily when green and 
its germination is easily destroyed. After it is dry, it may be 
sacked or piled in bulk, if it is kept in a dry place. It should 



448 FIELD CR0P8 

be protected from the weather and from mice and rats. The 
quantity of seed which is now generally planted ranges from 
^ to 1 bushel to the acre. While this is much more seed 
than is needed to produce a good stand, the numerous plants 
produced help to break the crust which often forms after 
hea\y rains and which might prevent entirely the emergence 
of plants from thinner seedings. Up to a few years ago, it 
was the common practice to plant as much as 2 or 3 bushels 
to the acre, but the demand for the seed at the oil mills has 
led to the discontinuance of this waste. 

The usual method of planting is to open a furrow in the 
middle of the bed with a small plow and to distribute the 
seed evenly in this furrow with a one-row planter. Attempts 
to plant cottonseed in hills have not been very successful, 
as the fuzz on the seeds causes them to stick together and 
prevent uniform dropping. Some attempts have been made 
to remove this difficulty by coating the seed with flour paste. 
This makes it possible to blow out the Hght seed with the 
fanning mill and to plant with the corn planter. It is 
probable that the plan of planting in hills as corn is usually 
planted will become much more general in the next few years. 
The distance between the rows ranges from 23^^ to 5 feet, 
according to the variety and the fertiUty of the soil. A 
small, early variety of the King type on sandj^ soil may be 
planted much closer than one of the big-boll type on loam or 
clay soils. The seed is covered to a depth of from 1 to 3 
inches, depending largely on the nature of the soil. The 
crop is planted during April and the first two weeks of ^lay. 

612. Cultivation. The ordinaiy method of cultivation 
has been to wait till the plants reach a height of 2 or 3 inches 
and then to break out the middles of the rows, which have 
previously been unplowed. A httle later, the field is ''barred 
off" by running a small plow or broad shovel close to the 
row and throwing the earth away from it. About this time, 
the plants are thinned with the hoe to the proper distance in 



Cultivation of cotton 



ii'j 



tho rows, this proccHs being known as "chopping out." 
The diHt'dncAi betww:;n the plants varieH with the width of 
the row8 and the fertihty of the soil. Where the plants 
make only a small growth, they should l>e much closer to- 
gether than where the growth is strong and rank. The 



^m^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^m 








^^?^'a:-»?\:.^^''M 








1^- • £i ^ ^l 


1 


\ ^' *^# 



FiKurfc 147. — P'k-ld of cotton ready for picking, rsuially the firjjt picking i« 
, made before so iriuch of the crop has opened. 

usual distance between the plants is from 1 to 2 feet. Later 
cultivation is usually shallow, for deep plowing cuts off many 
of the feeding roots. In some cases, however, particularly 
in weedy fields, the "turning plow," a small moldboard plow, 
is used for some of these later cultivations, often with dis- 
astrous results to the crops. From three to five cultivations 
and from one to three hoeings are ordinarily given. 

Better cultivation is now generally given to the cotton 
crop than was the case a few years ago. Two-horse culti- 
vators are replacing the one-horse ones so long in use, and 
the harrow and the weeder are more generally used early in 



450 FIELD CROPS 

the season. These tools pull out some of the young plants, 
but usually they are much thicker than is necessary and those 
that are pulled out with the harrow will not have to be hoed 
out later. At the same time large numbers of young weed 
and grass plants are killed, and the labor of later cultivations 
is lessened. Thin planting obviates much of the work of 
chopping out, and the frequent use of the cultivator makes 
hand hoeing largely unnecessary. Shallow cultivation with 
flat blades or with small shovels is taking the place of deeper 
cultivation with large shovels or the turning plow. Culti- 
vation is now continued practically up to the time the bolls 
begin to open. In this way, the crop is kept growing 
throughout the season, weeds are prevented from seeding, 
and the supply of moisture is maintained. 

HARVESTING THE CROP 

613. Picking. As soon as a considerable number of the 
bolls have opened, picking is begun. This operation usually 
begins in the extreme south about August 15, while farther 
north it may be delayed till September 15. Picking must 
be done by hand, as no satisfactory machine for the purpose 
has yet been produced, though many attempts have been 
made to invent such a boon to the cotton producer. The 
main difficulty with a mechanical picker is that the crop 
ripens over a considerable period of time and all of it can not 
be picked at once. The mechanical picker injures the plants 
if it is used when they are yet growing, while, if the cotton is 
left in the field till the end of the season, much of it will be 
damaged by the weather. 

When the boll opens, the lint is easily dislodged by a 
slight pull with the hand. Men, women, and children are 
all engaged in the work of cotton picking. The lint is placed 
in sacks or baskets as it is picked, and as these are filled they 
are emptied into wagons to be hauled to the gin. In order 
to gather all the crop in the best shape, three pickings are 



GINNING 451 

usually made, the first as soon as the earlier bolls open, the 
second when the majority of the bolls are ripe, and the third 
after frost has stopped further growth. The number of 
pickings may be reduced to two or may be increased, accord- 
ing to the locality and the season. The bulk of the crop is 
usually gathered at the second picking. Picking is the most 
expensive part of cotton production, and the invention of a 
satisfactory machine to do this work would mean almost as 
much to the industry as the invention of the cotton gin. 

614. Ginning. The next process after the cotton is 
picked is to separate the seed from the lint. The seed cotton 
is hauled to the ginnery, where the lint is removed from the 
seed and is packed into bales. The type of gin which is in 
common use, except in the Sea Island district, is the saw gin, 
which was invented by Eli Whitney in 1793, and has since 
been improved by many other inventors. The seed cotton 
is fed into a hopper at the bottom of which are many revolv- 
ing saws mounted on a cylinder. These saws tear the lint 
from the seed, the seed dropping down into a chute and the 
lint being removed from the saws by sets of brushes on 
another revolving cylinder. The lint is then pressed against 
a board by means of an air blast and passes from the gin in 
a continuous sheet. It is taken automatically to the press, 
where it is packed by means of hydraulic or steam power 
into a compact bale. 

The seed cotton is usually drawn from the wagon to the 
gins by suction and automatically divided among the several 
machines with which each ginnery is provided. From these, 
the lint cotton is all gathered into one bale, while the seed is 
carried to an elevator, so that in a very few minutes a wagon 
load of seed cotton can be ginned, the lint cotton baled and 
returned to the farmer's wagon, and the seed delivered to 
him from the elevator. During this process, practically no 
hand work is necessary. Cotton may be seriously damaged 
if the gin is run at too high a rate of speed or if the cotton is 



452 FIELD CROPS 

damp when ginned. Sea Island cotton is ginned in what is 
known as the roller gin, as the fiber is seriously damaged by 
the ordinary type of saw gin. 

615. The Cotton Bale. The standard square bale of 
cotton weighs about 500 pounds gross, with a net weight of 
478 pounds of lint. The difference of 22 pounds consists of 
"bagging and ties," that is, the bagging with which the bale 
is wrapped and the iron bands by which it is held in shape. 
The general run of cotton bales averages a little more than 
500 pounds in weight. A bale of cotton is a compact mass 
of lint cotton about 54 inches long, 44 inches wide, and 24 
inches thick. Round bales averaging 250 pounds in weight 
are sometimes made. These are more compact than the 
square bale and are made with less injury to the fiber, as the 
sheet of lint is wound directly upon a cylinder as it comes from 
the gin. Before cotton is shipped any considerable distance, 
the square bale is compressed to reduce the bulk, the 42 to 46 
inches of width being reduced to 20 inches. The other 
dimensions are not changed. In this form, the cotton of the 
South is shipped to the markets of the world. 

MARKETING AND RETURNS 

616. Marketing. Cotton is usually sold to local buyers 
or to representatives of large consumers of the lint. The 
sales are usually for cash, and a large part of the crop is sold 
as soon as it is ginned. It is then stored in warehouses 
awaiting shipment, is shipped at once to the mills, or, if pur- 
chased for export, is forwarded to one of the coast cities. 
Galveston, New Orleans, and Savannah are among the prin- 
cipal export cities. The grower may, however, store his 
cotton in a warehouse to be sold at some future time or may 
return it to his farm, if he has the proper conveniences for 
storage. The seed is either returned to him from the gin- 
nery or purchased by the ginner, who in turn sells it to an 
agent of the oil mill. 



MARKET GRADES OF COTTON 453 

617. Market Grades. The price of cotton is governed 
largely by its commercial grade, determined by a sample 
from the surface of the bale. The grades depend on the 
length and strength of the staple and upon its uniformity. 
The highest grade is known as ''fair," while the lowest is 
''ordinary." Between these two there are five other grades, 
known as middling fair, good middling, middling, low mid- 
dling, and good ordinary. Between each two of these grades 
are still others, half and quarter grades, distinguished by 
the terms ''strict," ''fully," and "barely." Cleanliness and 
\xeather injury often have as much influence on cotton prices 
as the actual grade of the cotton. "Fair" cotton is usually 
about one fourth higher in price than "ordinary." 

618. Prices. The relative prices of different lots of cot- 
ton are based on the market grades, but the price itself is 
fixed by the supply and demand, and also t© some extent by 
market manipulations. The price usually ranges between 
8 and 15 cents a pound, though cotton has sold below 5 
cents. The lowest price of middling upland at Galveston 
for the five years from 1913 to 1917 was 6.625 cents, and the 
highest price, 30.35 cents. The average of the highest yearly 
prices for the ten years was 18.43 cents, while the average of 
the lowest prices was 10.41 cents. Prices at the other large 
markets usually rule about the same as those at Galveston. 
The average price of cottonseed in the United States for 
1917 was $66.08 per ton. 

619. Exports and Imports. The average annual expor- 
tation of cotton for the five years from 1909 to 1913 was 
9,008,000 bales. Since 1914, cotton exports have been some- 
what restricted by war conditions. Of our exports, about 
30,000 bales were Sea Island cotton, the remainder being 
upland. During this period, the annual imports of cotton 
averaged only 215,000 bales. In the same years, an average 
of 38,968,000 gallons of cottonseed oil were exported from 
the United States. 



454 FIELD CROPS 

USES OF COTTON 

620. The Uses of the Lint. The lint of cotton is the 
most important of the woiki's fibers, furnishinji" clothinjz; for 
a very large part of all the people. It is the larj»;est item in 
our world trade, and the production of cotton goods is the 
largest of manufacturing enterprises. The lint is first spim 
into thread or yarn and is then woven into all manner of 
fabrics. Upland cotton is used in the manufacture of a 
large variety of cloths, either alone or in mixtures with wool, 
flax, or silk. Thread is largely made from long staple up- 
land, while Sea Island cotton is used for the finer threads 
an(i fabrics. Cotton is- used extensively in explosives. 

621. Uses of the Seed. Cottonseed was for many years 
thrown away as worthless or was used only as a fertilizer. 
During the last forty or fifty years the development of the 
cottonseed oil industry has furnished a ready market for the 
seed, and it is now a valuable })art of the crop. The whole 
seed is still used to some extent as a feed or fertilizer, but 
most of it goes to the oil mills. The })roducts from the seed 
are numerous, the primary ones being the linters, hulls, and 
meats. "Linters" is the short lint, or fuzz, which covers the 
seed and which is not removed in ginning. This fuzz is 
removed by a special ginning i)rocess and used for cotton 
batting, carpets, and coarse tAvine. The next process is to 
remove the hulls, as these would absorb the oil. These hulls 
have some value as fuel and fertilizer, and are also used for 
feeding to cattle. About 850 }->ounds of hulls is obtained 
from a ton of whole seed. The n\eats comprise about 1,100 
pounds of each ton of seed. 

After the hulls are removed, the meats are cooked for 
about twenty minutes to melt the oil and to drive off a part 
of the water. The oil is then extracted under pressure, a ton 
of seed yielding about 300 pouncis, or 40 gallons, of crude oil. 
A large number of different grades of oil are obtained by 
various processes of refining and filtering, and from these 



U8EH OF COTTON 8TALK8 455 

many products and compounds are made. Cottonseed oil 
is used for cooking, either alone or in combination with 
animal fats, as lard and butter substitutes such as cottolene 
and oleomargarine. Some of the grades of oil are used as 
8ubstitut<3S for olive and peanut oils and for medicinal pur- 
p<^ses, while others are largely used in the manufacture of 
soaps. The meats from which the oil has been pressed are 
ground into meal, known as cottonseed meal. 

(JottonswxJ meal is utilized as a fertilizer and as a feed 
for live stock. As a fertilizer, it is rich in nitrogen and also 
w^n tains some potash and phosphoric acid. It is com- 
monly used in the fertilization of all crops throughout the 
South. As a stock feed, it is most largely fed to cattle and 
sh(3ep. It contains 37. G per cent of digestible protein and 
9.G per cent of fat, so that it is one of the most concentrated 
feeds. Cottonseed meal is largely exported, it being in much 
favor among dairymen and other feeders of live stock in 
England and elsewhere. 

622. Uses of the Stalks. Little use has yet been made 
of the stalks of cotton, thougli cattle will eat the young bolls, 
leaves, and smaller stems if turned into the field after the 
crop is picked. The stalks may be cut with a stalk cutter 
and plowed under or they may be burned. Plowing them 
under is the better practice, since they are of some value for 
both vegetable matter and fertilizer. Some successful at- 
tempts have been made to produce paper from cotton stalks 
and from cottonseed hulls, but the industry has not yet 
been developed on a commercial scale. With the rapid 
depletion of our supply of wood pulp, it is probable that 
cotton and cornstalks will soon be put to this use. 

DISEASES AND INSECTS 

623. Diseases. Of the numerous diseases of cotton which 
occur in various sections of the South perhaps the most 
important are cotton wilt and root rot. Cotton wilt is some- 



456 FIELD CROPS 

what similar to flax wilt. The funp;us enters the young 
plant through the root hairs, and its niyceliuni fills the cells 
of the plant, preventing it from obtaining water. The plants 
become dwarfed, turn yellow, and usually die. As in flax, 
certain plants seem to be resistant to the disease. If seed is 
saved from these, resistant strains may be produced. This 
disease is confined to the southeastern part of the cotton 
belt. In Texas, particularly on the heavier lands, root rot 
is common. This disease attacks the roots of all tap-rooted 
plants, including cotton, the legumes, and many kinds of 
fruit trees. The most effective remedies in cotton fields 
are rotation of crops and deep fall plowing. The disease 
does not aiYect corn, the small grains, or grasses. 

624. Insect Pests. The most important insects which 
attack the cotton crop are the boll weevil and the boll- 
worm, though a host of others do more or less damage. The 
boll weevil was first reported in extreme southern Texas in 
1892, though it had been known in INIexico for many years. 
Since then it has spread through the cotton belt steadily, 
the advance northward and eastward being at the rate of 
from forty to fifty miles a year. It is now spread over the 
greater part of the cotton-producing area. 

The boll weevil is a grayish or reddish-brown insect about 
one fourth of an inch long which lays its eggs in the squares 
soon after the blossoms fall. The egg hatches and the 
rapidly growing larva eats the contents of the young boll. 
In about ten days, it turns into a pupa and a few days later 
emerges as a weevil. This insect, when it first appears in a 
district, is very destructive to the cotton crop, but its ravages 
decrease as farmers learn better how to control it. The most 
effective methods are the rotation of crops, frequent culti- 
vation to knock off and bury the infested squares, and the 
early planting of early varieties, as the insects do not become 
numerous till late in the season. As the weevil gets its 
food from within, it is not easily reached by poisons apphed 



GINNING 457 

to the surface. It has been shown, however, that arsenical 
poison, appUed in dust form when the dew is on the plant, 
is very efficacious. The weevil takes drink from the mois- 
ture on the leaves. From 250 to 1,000 pounds more seed 
cotton per acre, it is claimed, can be raised on sprayed than 
on unsprayed plats. 

The bollworm is the larval stage of a moth which lays its 
ep;gs on the stems and leaves of cotton and other plants. 
The worm eats the leaves of the cotton and also buries itself 
in the half-grown boll, eating the young seeds. The methods 
recommended for the destruction of the boll weevil are also 
effective with the bollworm. In addition, poisoning with 
Paris green and the use of trap crops are recommended. As 
the moths lay their eggs on the most readily available food 
plants, many of the worms may be destroyed early in the 
season by planting occasional rows of corn through the cotton 
field and cutting and destroying these when the worms 
become numerous. 

FLAX 

625. Fiber Flax. The cultivation of this crop has already 
been discussed (page 225). In the United States, flax is 
grown almost entirely as a grain crop, and the use of the straw 
for fiber is incidental. It is largely grown for the production 
of fiber in some portions of Europe, particularly in Russia. 
It ranks next to cotton in importance among vegetable fibers, 
the annual production for the five years from 1907 to 1911 
averaging 1,572,000,000 pounds as compared with 10,377,- 
000,000 pounds of lint cotton. 

HEMP 

626. History. Hemp is a native of western and central 
Asia. It is one of the oldest of cultivated plants, dating back 
at least 3,500 years. It is a member of the Moraceae, or 
mulberry, family, to which the mulberry, the osage orange, 



45S 



FIELD CROPS 



and the hop also belong. Hemp, Cannabis saliva, is a rank, 
leafy annual, reaching a height of from 8 to 10 or 12 feet. 
The staminate ami [listillate (lowers are produced on separate 
plants; the pistillate plants are more branched and the fiber 
from them is of less value than that from the staminate. The 

jiroduction of liemp in the 
United States is eonfined 
mostly to central Kentucky, 
central Tennessee, New 
York, and Nebraska. 

627. Culture. Hemp is 
ordinarily sown in April on 
land that is suitable for the 
production of corn. Rich 
land and the use of nitro- 
genous fertilizers result in 
increased yields. The seed 
is sown broadcast or with 
(he grain drill at the rate 
of from 4 to 6 pecks to the 
acre. The growth is rapid 
and there is little trouble 
from weeds. Harvesting 
begins as soon as the first 
seed ripens, which is usually 
in about three and one half months from planting. The 
method of hai-vesting depends on the vigor of the growth; 
ordinarily the crop is cut with the mower or binder, but if 
the growth is unusuallj^ rank and heavy, the corn knife is 
used. The plants are allowed to lie on the ground to ret 
with the dews and rains arid are then shocked or stacked. 
The processes of separating the fiber are quite similar to 
those described for the production of flax fiber (Section 292). 
The principal enemy of hemp is broom rape, a parasitic 
plant, which is best combated by rotation of crops. 




Figure 148. 



- \ shock of seed hemp. 

a', s. n. A ) 



MANILA, HJfiAL, JUTE 459 

The best quality of fiber is produced when hemp is retted 
under water, as is the custom in some of the European 
countries. Dew-retted hemp is dark in color and the fiber 
produced from it is rather coarse. Most of the hemp grown 
in the United States is used for the manufacture of ropes and 
of warp for carpets. 

OTHER FIBER PLANTS 

Several other fibers enter into the world's commercial 
l^se; but, as they are not raised in the United States, mere 
mention is made of them. 

628. Manila fiber is derived from a plant that grows 
luxuriantly in the Philii)pine Islands. Its length of fiber 
makes it especially useful for rope, for which purpose it is 
principally used. 

629. Sisal, so-calkui from a city of that name in Yucatan, 
is the whitish fiber of henecjuin, a plant of the Agave famil}', 
and cultivated in Central America and the West Indies. It 
is used for mats and twine, and is sometimes mixed with 
manila for rope. 

630. Jute is the fiber of the inner bark of a plant grown 
in India. It is used in the making of twine, bags, burlap, 
carpet, and even wrapping paper. 

LAIiOHATOHY AND FIELD EXERCISES 

1. Make a map of the United States and place a dot in each state 
for each thousand acres of cotton produced. 

2. Make an effort to secure samples of cotton plants representing 
the different types of cotton. Compare the fiber as to length and 
firmness. 

3. Wherever possible visit cotton plantations and study methods 
followed as to cultivation, fertilization and boll weevil control and com- 
pare results. 

4. If stastistics are available, make a careful comparison of the 
relative production of cotton and of wool in the United States both 
as to quantity and value. 



460 FIELD CTWPSI 

REFERENCES 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, Bailey. 

Cotton, Burkett and Poe. 

Farm Crops, Burkett. 

Southern P'ield Crops, Duggar. 

Cotton Seed Products, Lamborn. 

Field Crop Production, Livingston. 

Productive Farm Crops, Montgomery. 

From the Cotton Field to the Cotton Mill, Thompson. 

Farmers' Cyclopedia of Agriculture, Wilcox and Smith. 

Hemp, Boyce. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

577. Growing Egyptian Cotton in the Salt River Valley of Arizoni^ 

625. Cotton Wilt and Root Knot. 

764. Ginning Cotton. 

775. Losses from Selling Cotton in the Seed. 

787. Sea Island Cotton. 

802. The Classification and Grading of American Upland Cotton. 

848. The Boll Weevil Problem. 

890. How Insects Affect the Cotton Plant and Means of Com- 
bating Them. 



CHAPTER XXV 
TOBACCO 

628. Origin and History. Tobacco is one of the com- 
paratively few important cultivated plants which are natives 
of the New World. At the time of the discovery of America 
it was grown by the Indians over a large part of both conti- 
nents. It was taken to the Old World by the early explorers, 
and its use soon spread among the people there. For many 
years tobacco was a common medium of exchange among the 
settlers in Virginia and some of the other colonies. It was 
even made legal tender in some of them, and values were 
commonly reckoned in pounds of tobacco instead of in dollars 
and cents. Much of the early development of Virginia and 
Maryland was due to the cultivation of this crop, which was 
the most profitable one grov/n by the colonists and the only 
one which they exported in any quantity. Later, it was 
carried into Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio by the early 
settlers, and these states have always remained prominent 
in its cultivation. 

629. Botanical Characters. The tobacco plant, Nico- 
tiana tahacum, belongs to the natural order Solanaceae, in 
which is included the potato, tomato, and eggplant, and such 
medicinal and poisonous plants as henbane, nightshade, and 
Jimson weed, or datura. Tobacco is a broad-leaved annual, 
growing to a height of from 3 or 4 to 8 feet. The leaves, 
which are the portion utilized, vary greatly in shape, size, 
and texture in different varieties and under different soil and 
climatic conditions. Climate and soil have more influence 
than variety, as widely differing varieties soon assume much 
the same characteristics when grown in a given locality for 
several years. The long white or pink tubular flowers are 

461 



462 FIELD CROPS 

borne in panicles at the top of the stem and on the ends of 
the side branches. The numerous and very small seeds ma- 
ture in a few weeks after the blossoms appear. 

630. Composition. Tobacco is rich in plant food ele- 
ments, containing about 6.7 per cent of nitrogen, 8.5 per 
cent of potash, and 9 per cent of phosphoric acid. The upper 
leaves average 2.5 per cent of nicotine, a poisonous alkaloid 
which characterizes this plant. Tobacco is, therefore, an 
exhausting crop, but, in turn, is itself good green manure. 

631. Types of Tobacco. Several distinct types of tobacco 
are grown in the United States. The most important are 
the cigar-leaf, white Burley, heavy, or export, and bright 
yellow. The types are distinguished more by their uses 
than by their botanical characteristics. Filler tobacco is 
grown principally in Pennsylvania, Ohio, and the South, 
and wrapper grades in the Connecticut Valley, Pennsylvania, 
Wisconsin, and Florida. White Burley is a distinct type 
with light green leaves and cream-colored stems and midribs, 
which is grown most largely in central Kentucky. Most of 
this type is used in the manufacture of chewing tobacco. 
In western Kentucky, western Tennessee, and the adjoining 
sections of Illinois, Indiana, and Missouri, a type known as 
heavy, dark, or export, tobacco is grown. This is a dark- 
colored, thick-leaved type which is mostly exported to Europe. 
In Virginia and North Carolina, the principal type is the 
bright yellow, which is manufactured into smoking and 
chewing tobacco. 

632. Importance of the Crop. The tobacco crop of the 
world averaged 2,583,219,000 pounds annually for the five 
years from 1907 to 1911. Of this crop, more than one third, 
or 896,095,000 pounds, was grown in the United States. 
Complete world data for later years are not available. Among 
the other countries where tobacco is largely grown are British 
India, with an annual crop of 450,000,000 pounds; Aus- 
tria-Hungary, with 180,475,000 pounds; and Russia, with 



SOILS AND FERTILIZERS 463 

179,099,000 pounds. Cuba's crop averaged 48,797,000 
pounds for this period. This was mostly high-priced cigar- 
leaf tobacco. Other important countries in the production 
of this crop are Argentina, Brazil, Germany, Turkey, the 
Dutch East Indies, and Japan. 

The average area devoted to this crop in the United 
States for the period from 1913 to 1917 was 1,334,000 acres, 
with an average yield of 809.7 pounds to the acre. The 
total production averaged 1,080,076,000 pounds, valued at 
$157,457,000. 

I 34.51% 




13.81% 



Figure 149. — Percentage of the tobacco crop of the United States produced in 
each of the leading states, 1908-1917. 

Figure 149 shows that more than one third of the entire 
tobacco crop of the United States is produced in the state 
of Kentucky. This state produces more than one eighth of 
the tobacco crop of the world, and the average value of its 
annual crop is nearly $48,000,000. In 1917 the crop of this 
state was 426,600,000 pounds and was valued at close to 
$97,000,000. North Carolina and Virginia rank next in 
production, though their combined crop is less than that of 
Kentucky. These three states produce about five ninths of 
the tobacco crop of the entire country. The usual yield to 
the acre in these states is from 650 to 900 pounds. In Wis- 
consin it is about 1,100 pounds, and in Connecticut, 1,600. 

633. Soils and Fertilizers. None of our other field crops 
is so affected in quality and value by soil conditions as is 
tobacco. The soil should be easily tilled and fertile, con- 
taining a large quantity of humus. The different types of 
tobacco require soils of widely varying character, or what is 



4r.l Fll'JLD CROPS 

porlijips nenror tho truth, tlio (lilTorout typos of soil produce 
wuli^ly (lilTiM'out typos of tobaooo. C\i\y soils produco hoavy 
(ohacoo of tho slui)i)inii;, or oxport, typo, wliilo (ho finost loaf 
or ('i.L!;ar tobacco is j;ro\vu on tho liji;litiM- saiuiy soils. 

Wiiilo thoro is a. wido variation in tho adaptability of soil 
typos to tobacco j)r()du('tion, tlu^ cioi) ,i;rows bettor on all soils 
that Mi(* f(Mtil(* nnd moist. Tho j;rowth must be rapid and 
without chock from drouii;ht or otluM- causes, else the loaf will 
bo small and of poor t(^xtur(\ 'Vhc fcrtiliztM- which is used 
do[)onds larnoly on tho soil and tlu* typo of tobacco which is 
grown, but horsi* maiun'o is (^uito conunonly used when it is 
available, and counntMcial f(MtilizcM's ar(^ also frequently ap- 
plied. The fiM'tili/iCM*, howinor, should Ix^ W(^1I balanced, or 
the (juality of the crop will bo injunMl. An (*xcess of phos- 
phoric ai'id alTocts the color of tlu^ ash in ci,i2;ar tobacco, while 
o\c(^ssivo nitroiijon ]>roduces a thick, heavy loaf not suited to 
cii»;ar use. Some* of tluM'lu\ap(M' forms of potash, as those 
which contain cidorinc, arc injurious to tlu^ burning qual- 
ity of cigars. Tlu^ I'lMtilizors which are most commonly used 
with goo(i results iwc cottonseed nu^d, high-grade sulphate 
of i)otash, and acid i)hosi)hato. The IVntilizor is usually 
broadcasted ov drilled in before tho plants are set, tho 
application varying from 200 pounds to a ton to tho acre. 

634. Preparing tlie Seed Bed. Unlike most of our other 
field crops, tobacco is sown tirst in a plant bod from which 
tho plants are later transplanted to the hold. This is on ac- 
count of tho minute nature of the seeds and the slow growth 
of the young plants, an(i also because these beds can be pro- 
tected from late frosts and the seed, therefore, sown much 
earlier than would otherwise be possible. It is always de- 
sirable to use virgin soil for the plant bed, as it contains a 
largo proportion of vegetable matter and is also com})ara- 
tiv(^ly free from weed seeds and insects. The conunon 
practice^ in many sections whore such land is available is to 
clear olT a small patch in an open wood, the surrounding 



BOWING TOBACCO BE ED 4r,r, 

timber furniHhinp; protection from coM ;infl wincJH. If new 
Ijind e;innc)i Ixi li/ui, iFu^n ii(!wly hrokcin Hod i.s ftornmoMly \ihv,(\. 
iUihiviilod land should be uscsd only wli(;n no oMwrr is avnil- 
ablc; but, if it must Ixi resort(;d to, it should 1x5 well f(!rt,ili/ed 
the pr(;vious f.'ill vviUi b;irny;ird manun; or t.oba(;eo sf(;rns 
and th(; solubh; (ilcjinents allowcnl to leaeh into the soil durinj^ 
the wint(;r. 'i'hc; manure or stx^ms sliould th(;n Ix; rak(;d off 
in the; spring ,'i,nd th(i b(;d tr(;at(;d as a ncjw one;. 

During the; vvirit(;r, the bed should b(; burned ovcir to 
make the soil friable; and to kill all w(;ed scmkJs and inseets. 
These purpos(;s are usually ao(;ornplish(;d by pilinj^ brush and 
loj^s over tin; bed and })urnin^ th(;rn. A Ic)w, st(;ady fire is 
more efTeetive than a hi^h, <\\n<;k oik;. The; soil shoulrl bf; 
thorouj^hly h(;at(;d to a fl(;i)Mi of several inchcis. 

Th(; size of the b(;d is naturally j^ov(;rned by tiie acreaj^c; 
to be planted. J^^nou^h f)lants can Ik; [)rodueed on from 75 
to 100 square f(;et to f)lant an acn;, but it is safer to have 
from 150 to 200 sfjuare feet of \)oA for (;aeh acre to b(; i)lant(;d. 
This spac(; ^iv(;s much mon; opi)ortunity for the s(;lc;cUon of 
the best f)lants. 'i'ln; most coriv(;ni(!nt shape; for the j)L'int 
bed is one about '4 feet wide and as lon^ as may be necessary, 
for this width makes it easy to reach to any portion of it from 
one side or the other. 

635. Sowing the Seed. As the seed is very small, it is 
usually mixed with dry wood ashes or some other fine mate- 
rial to ^ive bulk and insun; (;ven distribution. A teaspoon- 
ful of seed will sow from 200 to 300 square f(;(;t of b(;d. I5c;- 
fore sowing, the light and immature seeds should be l^lown 
out with a tobacco-seed grader, as the larger, heavier seeds 
give much better plants. The date of seeding depends 
largely on the date of the latest spring frr)st. In order to 
have the i>lants ready for setting in th(; fi(;lds as soon after 
this date as possible, the seed shc>uld })e sown about two 
months previous. This necessity requires March seeding in 
Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia, while the seed is sown in 

30— 



466 



FIELD CROPS 



April in the states farther north. The seed should be dis- 
tributed over the bed as evenly as possible and covered very 
lightly. The usual method of covering is to sprinkle the bed 
thoroughly with water, though a board is sometimes used to 




1 laiJre 160. — The kind of tobacco crop that is produced when good plants from 
selected seed are planted on suitable land and given good care. 



press the seed into the soil or it is covered by brushing the 
surface of the bed lightly with a whisk broom. 

On account of this early seeding, some protection from 
cold is necessary. This is usually provided by driving stakes 
into the ground along the edges of the bed and building a 
tight enclosure of boards about 1 foot high. This is then 
covered with glass or plant muslin, the cloth being more com- 



PHtJPAHING TIJI'J TOBACCO FIELD 4G7 

rnonly used, as it gives Ijetter ventilation, is cheafX3r, and the; 
plants under it are less subject to disease. It is neces- 
sary to water frequently, at least as often as three times 
a week, for the plants should never be allowed to become 
stunted from di'oijf^ht or any other cause. 

636. Preparing the Field. As tobacco is a crop which 
^ives larg(; r(;luins wIkjii jjrtjperly grown, it well repays much 
care and attention in fitting the field and in cultivating the 
crop. Spring plowing is most commonly practiced on new 
land and on fields where tliere is a blue grass or clover sod, 
or^here cover crops are grown. It is preferable to have a 
cover crop on the land ov(jr winter to prevent washing and 
leaching of the. soil. It is then disked and harrowed at in- 
tervals of a week or ten days till the plants are set in the field. 
This frequent working puts the surface soil in fine condition, 
helps to hold the moisture, and kills the weeds. The fertilizer 
is distri}jut(;d just b(!for(j the rows are marked for planting. 

637. Setting the. Plants. When the danger of frost is 
past, the plants are lomoved fj'om the bed and set in the 
field. Early setting is a^ivisa})le, as a larger percentage of 
the plants will sui'vive and the plants will mature when con- 
ditions for curing are best. In order to retain all the small, 
fibrous roots and to prevent injury as inuch as possible in 
removing tlie plants, the; IkmJ is thoroughly sprinkled before 
the plants are pulled. They are usually taken up in the 
morning and packed tightly in baskets or boxes for carrying 
to the field. If they are not set at once, it is best to keep 
them in a cool, shady place till wanted. Small or diseased 
plants should be discarded. If the weather is cloudy, the 
j)lants may be set at any time during the day; if it is clear, 
setting in the afternoon and evening is safest. The plants 
are set either by hand or with the transplanting machine, the 
machine being used generally where large acreages are grown. 
If the soil is dry, water is applied at the time of setting, but 
it is not necessary to do so when there is plenty of moisture. 



468 FIELD CROPS 

A few days later, all dead plants should be replaced with 
fresh ones from the plant bed. The (Hstance between the 
plants dilTors with the variety and (ho soil, thouiiili the usual 
distance between the rows is from 3 to 1 feet, with the plants 
from IS to 24 inches apart in the row. With a planter, 3 
acres can be set in a day, three men and a team being required 
in its operation. 

638. Cultivation. As soon as the plants start into growth 
after trans[)lantini;-, the ground should be stirred. The earlier 
cultivations are usually with the shovel plow, to loosen 
the soil to a depth of several inches and admit air and heat. 
Later, surface cultivation is given, to keep down weeds 
and maintain a dust mulch. The soil should be worked 
toward the plants rather than away from them, using great 
care not to injure the roots. Every effort should be made to 
induce steady, rapid growth. It is best to continue the 
cultivation at intervals of a few days until the plants shade 
the ground quite completely; after that time, the leaves are 
likely to be broken or injured by it. Later workings are 
usually given with a one-horse spring-tooth cultivator. 

Shade-grown tobacco generally grows taller and matures 
thinner and more pliable leaves preferred for wrappers. The 
shade is produced by nailing lath or extending cloth over a 
framework. The laths are arranged to give half shade. 

639. Topping. When from ten to eighteen leaves have 
been produced, the top of the plant is broken out to prevent 
the production of seed and to increase the size and substance 
of the leaves. Consitlerable judgment is required in this 
work, for on it depends in large measure the uniformity 
and yield of the crop. Slow-growing plants or those on poor 
soil are usually allowed to dcA'clop fewer leaves than those on 
rich soil or which are making rapid growth. Soon after the 
top is removed, suckers will be produced from the axils of 
the leaves. These should be removed when they reach a 
length of about 3 inches. It is necessary to go over the field 



II A It VKH TING TO HA (J (JO 



4G9 



sc'veral times to remove these suckers, since they continue 
to appear as lon^ as the plant is growinj^. If they are 
allowed to d(jvelop, thfjy reduce the value of the leaves on 
the rnairj stulk f>y d<*f>rivir]j( them of much plant food. 
640. Harvesting the Crop. Two methods of harvesting 




Figure 151. — ]larv(;.-,LHi;4 tobacco. 'I he ..la.lJ..-, are utruriK on latliM and loa'l<;'i on 
the frame on the wagon, to be hiaulcd to the barn for curing. 



tobacco are in common us(3. Wh(jre ci^ar-leaf tobacco is 
grriwn, the leav(5S are commonly ''primed"; that is, the lower 
l(;aves, which always mature first, are first removed, and the 
others taken off as they ripen. Other grades of tobacco are 
commonly harvested by cutting the entire plant with a corn 
knife or a special knifes devised for the purpose. The proper 
stage of ripeness is indicated by a slight yellowing of the 
Iciaves and by several other tests known to the grower, 
such as th(i "fcjol" of the leaves and the brittleness of Ihfj 
veins. The plants -are usually ready to liarvest about a 
month after topping. 

Where the leaves are cut singly, they are strung on laths, 
which pierce them near the base, thirty to forty leaves being 
put on a lath. If the entire plant is cut, from four to six 
are put on a lath, according to the size of the plant. A 



470 



FIELD CROPS 



removable metal spear is placed on the end of the lath and 
run through tlie base of the stalk. The leaves are allowed 
to wilt for a few hours, and are then hauled to the barn for 
curing. In hot, sunshiny weather the wilting is best accom- 
plished by hanging the laths close together on a temporary 
scaffolding in the field, as the leaves are likely to sunburn if 




Figure 152. — A tobarco curing barn with horizontal vontihitors. The method of 
hanging the leaves in the barn is shown. 

left fully exposed to the sun's rays. Leaves which are "yel- 
lowed" or wilted on the scaffold are less likely to burn in 
curing. Care should be taken throughout the harvesting 
process to avoid injury by bruising. 

641. Curing. The curing process depends largely on the 
use which is to be made of the crop. The object is to remove 
the moisture in the leaves and stems in such a way as to 
produce an even texture and coloring in the leaves. For 
this purpose, the tobacco is hung in the curing barn as soon 
as it has wilted. Scaffolding is provided so that the laths 
may be hung in tiers, giving plenty of room between the 
plants for ventilation. The plants should be shaken when 



STRIPPING AND GRADING TOBACCO 471 

hung in the barn, to prevent the leaves from sticking together. 
Good ventilation at the sides and top must be provided. 

Ordinarily, the tobacco is air-cured, though in damp 
seasons some artificial heat may be necessary. In dry 
weather, the ventilators are left open day and night. On 
damp days, they should ordinarily be open during the day, 
though they may be closed at night. If the air is very damp, 
the ventilators may be kept closed for as long as forty-eight 
hours, or until the saturation point is indicated by the ''sweat- 
ing" of the tobacco. They must then he opened and Char- 
cot fires built to create a circulation of air, else ''houseburn" 
and discoloration of the leaves may result. It is then said to 
be fire-cured. When cured in close quarters with higher 
degrees of heat, it is said to be flue-cured. Two months are 
ordinarily required for curing, though the process may be 
completed in less time if artificial heat is used. Rapid curing, 
however, is likely to produce poor color. 

642. Stripping and Grading. Moist days during the 
winter are usually selected for stripping, or removing the 
leaves from the stalks. In some localities, the tobacco is 
removed to a damp cellar before stripping. When the leaves 
contain sufficient moisture, they may be handled without 
cracking or breaking. Much depends on having the leaves 
in proper ''case"; that is, in having them contain just enough 
moisture to handle readily. If too dry or "going out of 
case," they will continue to dry out when bulked and will 
become brittle; while, if they are too moist or in "too high 
case," they will become very dark when in bulk. 

The leaves are sorted into from three to five grades as 
they are stripped, the number of grades depending on the 
type of tobacco and the use which is to be made of it. These 
grades have different names in the different types, and vary 
materially in their market value. The central leaves on the 
stalks usually go in the best grade. After the leaves are 
graded, they are tied in small bundles and these into larger 



472 FIELD r/?OP<Sf 

huiullos, the form Mud sizo of (ho pncknj^o doponding some- 
what on {ho kind of tobjicco. Tobacco wliich is packnd in 
the winior will sweat in INIay, and nuist be hnn^; ont (o (hy 
or it will rot. It may then be bnlked and will keep indefi- 
nitely, as will (hal which is |)u( down in "snmmer order"; 
that is, allowed (o hani;' in iho cuiinii; sluvl over winltM* and 
then stripped and packinl (he followini;; sunnniM'. 

643. Marketing. 'Vhc m(Mhod of inarkiMinj!; (U^ptMids on 
(lu* (listanci* which (lie tobacco must \)c shij)i)ed. If factories 
or warehouses are close by, it is marketed loose. If it must 
b(^ shipped a considerable distance, it is packinl (i^ldly in(() 
hoj»;sheads or larj!;e casks. The manner of packinji; depends 
lari!;(^ly on (he mark(M. Only oiu^ ^rade should be i)ut in a 
pai'ka;i2;e, and can^ siiould \)v exercised in packinj;' in order (o 
obtain (he b(^s( i)ric(\ There are usually wan^houses or 
factories clos(^ (o i\\o tobacco fields, so (ha( i\\c farnua- n(HHl 
not pack his crop. 

644. Returns. Tlu^ i)rice of tobacco \aii(^s widely from 
yeai' (oyear, accordinii; (o (he supply and o(luM-caus(^s. '^riuMX^ 
are also wide (iilT(M(Mic(^s in ])ric(^ ainoni;' \\\c dilT(M(Mi( «»;ra(l(\s. 
The a.verai»;e ])rice jhm- pound for \\\c Icn y(\ns from H)()S (o 
li)l7 was !().() c(mHs in KiMilucky, wIumh^ smokinii; and heavy 
exi)ort tobaccos iwc larp;ely j»;rown; in North Carolina, where 
chewinii; and the be((er j^rades of smoking- (obacco ari^ p;rown, 
it was [5.1 cents; in Connecticut, where (he crop is en(iiely 
used for (he manufacture of cit»;ars, the average price per 
pound was 21.6 cents; and in Morida, where the best grade 
of cigar wrappers is i)roduced, the average return to the 
grower was 82.1 cents. 

As the acre yield varies from (\0() (o 1,500 pounds or even 
more, it can readily be seen (ha( (he value of an acre of (obac- 
co is high, and jusdy so, as (he expense of growing (lie crop 
is heavy. The average vahu* pcM- acre in Kentucky for the 
five years from 1912 to 191() was .179.56; Virginia, $81.16; 
North Carolina, $95.47; Connecticut, $346.45; and Florida, 



TOBACCO IN ROTATION 473 

$286.86. Tho r.'onnocticut and Florida tobacco is largely 
Krown under tho sha(Je of muslin Hcreens and tho cost of pro- 
duction is hi^h, so that the net returns, while greater than 
in the other states, are not so large as might at first appear. 

645. Rotation. A Virginia rotation for dark tobacco is: 
First year, tobacco; s(M;ond year, wheat; third and fourth 
years, mixed grasses and clover; fifth year, corn; sixth year, 
cowpeas. A Pennsylvania rotation is: First year, wheat; 
second year, grass; third year, tobacco. The rotation may 
b(i extended a year by growing com after wheat. \n Kcai- 
tuc^y tobacco is somcjtimes grown for two years in succes- 
sion afU;r a crop of blue grass. In Wisconsin it is advo- 
cator] that on low and prairie soils, well-supplied with humus 
and nitrogen, and even on sandy and clay loams a rotation 
need not be employed till depreciation occurs. 

646. Insects and Diseases. ^IVjbacco is not subject to 
irjjury from many insect fx^sts or diseases. The most fre- 
qiK^rit pest is the horn worm, or tobacco worm, which f(;(;ds 
on the leaves. This may be kilkxi by applying from 3^ to 
1 pound of dry Paris green to the acre, mixing the poison 
with about twenty times its bulk of flour and applying it 
to the plants with a bellows. If too much poison is used, 
it will burn the leaves. 1'he smaller worms are killed by the 
Paris gr(3<in, but it does not affect the largfjr ones. Thfjsc; 
must be removed by hand picking. Few diseases attack 
the plant in the field. Damping-<jff, or bed rot, "and other 
fungous diseases sometimes occur in the plant hoA, but these 
are ordinarily controlled by burning the bed before seeding, 
sowing only the l^est seed, and giving proper attention to 
ventilation and wat/;ring. 

647. Selection of Seed. A few of the choicest plants may 
be allowed to produce seed. As half a dozen will produce 
(mough seed for several acres, there is plenty of opportunity 
for the selection of only the very best plants. These ought 
to be uniform and typical of the variety or type which is 



474 FIELD CROPS 

being grown. The market value of the crop can be materially 
increased by care in the selection of the seed plants. As 
soon as the flower stalks appear, but before any flowers open, 
the head should be covered with a 12-pound manila paper 
bag, for experiments have shown that self-fertilized seed 
produces much more uniform plants than that which is open- 
fertilized. After a few days, the bag is taken off temporarily 
and all superfluous leaves and blossoms removed, leaving 
from forty to eighty seed pods. It is then put back, 
and taken off at intervals of a few days to remove new flower 
buds which may have formed. After three or four weeks, 
the bag is taken off permanently, care still being given to 
remove all flower buds which develop afterwards. When 
the pods turn brown, the stem is cut off and hung in a dry, 
airy place for curing. The seed should be stored in a dry 
place and safe from the attacks of mice and insects, for on 
it depends largely the value of the succeeding crop. 

LABORATORY AND FIELD EXERCISES 

1. Examine the different kinds of leaves used for different pur- 
poses. What are the characteristics of each? 

2. Grow a few tobacco plants with different fertilizers and with- 
out fertOizer, and note results. Also grow some plants under shade, 
and note what differences may appear. 

3. Visit fields and barns, if possible, and observe methods of plant- 
ing, growing, and curing. 

REFERENCES 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, Bailey. 

Tobacco, Its History, Culture, and Varieties, Billings. 

Farm Crops, Burkett. 

Southern Field Crops, Duggar. 

Tobacco Leaf, Killebrew and Myrick. 

Productive Farm Crops, Montgomery. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

416. Production of Cigar Leaf Tobacco. 

523. Tobacco Curing. 

571. Tobacco Culture. 



PART V— CONCLUDING CHAPTERS 
CHAPTER XXVI 

ROTATION OF CROPS 

648. Definition. A rotation of crops, according to the 
Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, is "a recurring succes- 
sion of plants covering a regular period of years and main- 
tained on alternating fields on the farm." Crop rotation 
can best be explained, perhaps, by giving an example of it 
which is common in many sections. A cultivated crop, as 
corn or potatoes, is grown on one part of the farm the first 
year; a grain crop, as wheat, oats, or barley, on another; 
and a grass crop, as timothy, clover, or brome grass, on a 
third part. The following year the grain will occupy the 
land where the cultivated crop was grown; the grass crop, 
which was sown with the grain the first year, will occupy that 
land ; while the land in grass the first year will be broken and 
planted to a cultivated crop. This regular sequence of 
cultivated crops, grain crops, and grass crops, is called a 
rotation of crops. Unless there is some definite plan and 
reason for such a sequence, it cannot properly be called a 
rotation. For instance, the alternating of oats or barley or 
flax with wheat in a spring-wheat region can hardly be called 
a rotation, for it does not conform to the principles on which 
crop rotation is based. 

649. Origin of Crop Rotation. The system of farming 
which was originally followed was to grow a crop on a piece 
of land continuously until the yields decreased below the 
point where production was profitable. Then the land was 
allowed to ''rest"; that is, it reverted to a state of nature, 
growing up to weeds, brush, or trees, while a new field was 

475 



476 FIELD CROPS 

cleared for the farm operations. If the old piece was again 
cleared after a few years, its original fertility would be found 
to be largely restored, for the plants which grew on it during 
the interval drew the plant food from the soil as it became 
available and returned it with each recurring season. 

After a time, the practice became common of resting the 
land for but a single season, allowing it to grow up to weeds 
and then plowing them under. This was less expensive and 
laborious than clearing new land, while its effect on crop 
yields was nearly as good. As agriculture advanced, the 
land was cultivated during this resting period to prevent the 
growth of weeds and what was known as the ' 'summer fallow" 
was developed. Still later, a cultivated crop was substituted 
for the summer fallow, for land was constantly becoming 
more valuable and it was not profitable to allow it to he 
idle every alternate year. Crop rotation was thus eventually 
developed. This same process of evolution from continuous 
cropping to a systematic rotation of crops is repeated in 
more or less detail in practically every newly settled country. 
It is now taking place in a large part of our western territory, 
though here the lack of rainfall may interfere in some degree 
with tke adoption of logical rotation systems, 

HOW ROTATIONS HELP 

650. Advantages of a Rotation. A rotation of crops 
improves the physical condition of the soil, helps to con- 
serve moisture and vegetable matter in the soil, lessens the 
damage from insects and plant diseases, aids in the control 
of weeds, increases crop yields, distributes the labor of crop 
production, and helps to systematize farm operations. 

651. Rotation Improves the Physical Condition of the 
Soil. The roots of all plants do not penetrate the soil to the 
same depth. Deep-rooting plants like clover and ahalfa 
enter the lower layers of the soil. When their roots decay 
they open channels for the passage of air and moisture and 



ROTATION OF CROPS 477 

make it easier for the crops which follow to draw on the 
stores of plant food in the subsoil. Constant cultivation and 
the growing of cultivated crops tend to decrease the supply 
of vegetable matter in the soil, because favorable conditions 
for its decomposition are provided. Grain crops add little 
in the way of vegetable matter unless the straw is returned 
in manure, as the roots and stubble are not bulky. The 
grasses, however, grow for two or more years and accumulate 
a large quantity of fibrous material, which tends to restore 
the supply of vegetable matter. If a portion of this matter 
is iii the lower soil layers, as in the case of deep-rooting plants, 
it further improves the physical condition. The varying 
cultivation which is given to different crops is also of benefit, 
for the soil is stirred to different depths and aerated. 

652. Rotations Conserve Moisture. Practically all sys- 
tems of rotation include, at some time during their course, 
one or more cultivated crops. Cultivation, by maintaining 
a surface mulch and lessening evaporation, helps to hold the 
moisture in the soil. Moisture passes very readily from 
stubble land, or from any bare, untilled field, but the tillage 
given a cultivated crop conserves moisture for the next crop. 

653. Rotations Conserve Vegetable Matter. Constant 
cultivation and the removal of crops rapidly reduce the 
vegetable matter in the soil. A rational system of rotation 
includes the keeping of more or less live stock to turn the 
bulkier and less valuable products of the farm into more con- 
centrated and more readily salable products. With proper 
care given to the manure, a large part of this vegetable matter 

'may be returned to the soil. While grain crops and cultivated 
crops are exhaustive of vegetable matter, grass crops, because 
they have extensive rdot systems, materially increase the 
vegetable matter in the soil. 

654. Rotations Lessen Damage from Insects and Dis- 
eases. Most of the plant diseases and injurious insects are 
decidedly limited in the number of plants on which they can 



478 



FIELD CROPS 



live. Many of them are destructive to only one of the crops 
commonly grown. They are not generally capable of move- 
ment for any considerable distance during a season, but 
increase very rapidly from year to year if a single crop is 
grown repeatedly on the same land. The change of crops 
from one field to another helps to keep these pests under 




Figure 153. — Samples of soil from (1) a grass plot, and (2) from one which has 
been in corn continuously for a number of year.*. Note the absence of vege- 
table matter in the sample from the corn field. 

control. As most plant diseases are unable to maintain 
themselves for more than three or four years in the soil 
without their particular host crop on which to grow, the crop 
may be returned to the land at the end of such a period with' 
little fear of injury. The same statement is true to a lesser 
extent of insects. Some of them will go from field to field, 
but the greater part of them will die for lack of suitable food 
if crops on which they do not feed are introduced. 

655. Rotations Aid in Keeping Down Weeds. Some 
weeds grow best in certain crops or under certain conditions; 



ROTATION OF CROPS 479 

others thrive under totally different conditions. The small 
grains offer particularly favorable conditions for the growth 
of many weeds. The spring grains are sown before many of 
the weed seeds germinate, and ordinarilj^ no effort is made to 
control weeds which come up in them, so that they are allowed 
to grow unmolested till harvest. Even less opportunity is 
afforded to combat weeds in fall grain, except that the grain 
begins growth earlier in the spring than many of the weeds 
and is harvested earlier than some of them mature their 
seed. By harvest, most of the annual weeds have ripened 
their seeds and have thus had every chance to increase. 
Meadows and pastures offer less favorable conditions for 
annual weeds, as the crops and weeds are cut or eaten off by 
stock, and when a good sod is established it affords little 
opportunity for weeds to get a start. Biennial and peren- 
nial weeds, however, often thrive in meadows and pastures, 
if the field is left undisturbed for several years and there is 
no chance to destroy them by stirring the soil. Cultivated 
crops offer opportunities for the destruction of weeds of all 
classes. In other words, weeds increase rapidly in grain 
crops, some classes decrease while others may increase in 
meadows and pastures, and all classes decrease in fields on 
which cultivated crops are grown and given proper attention. 
656. Rotations Insure Returns. A rotation of crops, 
with the diversification which it necessarily implies, insures 
some return for the season's labor. Seasonal conditions may 
be such as to cause the total failure of one crop, but it is very 
seldom, at least east of the 100th meridian, that all the crops 
on the farm fail to yield a profitable return. Conditions 
that are unfavorable to oats or wheat may be quite suitable 
for corn or hay, so that if one has several crops he is much 
surer of some return for his labor than if he depends entirelj^ 
on one. The old caution, ''Do not put all your eggs in one 
basket," applies as well to crops as to anything else. Plant 
diseases or insect pests may destroy one crop, but they are 



480 FIELD CROPS 

seldom destructive to all crops in any one year. The diversi- 
fication of crops has been the best means of preventing finan- 
cial disaster in the sections of the South which have been 
invaded by the cotton boll weevil, just as it has been under 
similar circumstances in other sections. 

657. Rotations Increase Crop Yields. One crop helps 
to prepare the soil for the one which follows. Clover opens 
the subsoil and adds nitrogen and vegetable matter for the 
corn or potato crop which comes after it. A cultivated crop 
preceding one of small grain puts the soil in the best physical 
condition, conserves moisture, and cleans the land of weeds. 
If the crops which are produced are largely fed on the farm 
and the manure returned to the land, crop yields will be 
further increased, because each crop, except perhaps the small 
grains, increases the available supply of plant food. The 
grasses and clovers add vegetable matter to the soil, while 
cultivation unlocks a part of the store of plant food and 
makes it available for the use of plants. 

658. Rotations Distribute Farm Labor. Growing a 
single crop or a single class of crops limits the seasons at 
which farm work can be done. The growing of small grains 
requires a rush of work during a few weeks while the land is 
being prepared and the crops seeded, and again during har- 
vest, with little employment during the remainder of the 
year. Cultivated crops in general are planted later than the 
small grains and most of the work of. cultivation is done 
before grain harvest, while they are not ready to gather until 
the grain crops are safely housed. Hay crops require little 
labor except at the haying season, which usually comes when 
other crops do not require much attention, except that it may 
sometimes conflict with the harvest of small grains, or the 
cultivation of intertilled crops. The harvest of such crops 
as alfalfa, which yield several cuttings during the season, 
may conflict with the handling of other crops, but such con- 
flicts can hardly be avoided. A diversity of crops usually 



ROTATION OF CROPS 481 

encourages the keeping of more live stock than single-crop 
farming, and live stock usually requires more attention dur- 
ing the season when the crops require least care, thus dis- 
tributing labor throughout the year. The system of farming 
which provides employment for the farm labor throughout 
the greater part of the year is the one which is most likely 
to prove stable and profitable, other things being equal. 

659. Rotations Systematize Farm Operations. A rota- 
tion implies a definite system of operations. The following 
of a rotation allows the farmer to plan his work more defi- 
nitely during the season and to figure more definitely on 
crop yields and income. Rotations tend to the division of 
the farm into regular units of uniform size, and decrease 
rather than increase the number of fields on most farms. By 
effecting a more uniform distribution of farm labor through- 
out the season, a smaller and much more permanent force is 
required, which in itself tends to place the work of the farm 
on a stable and systematic basis. 

660. Rotations Do Not Conserve Fertility. Many persons 
hold that rotations conserve soil fertility. While crop yields 
will decrease much more slowly where several crops are 
grown in a rotation than where any one is grown continu- 
ously, crop rotation is just as certain to exhaust the supply 
of available fertility eventually, if no fertilizers are used, as 
is a single cropping system. The various crop plants all use 
the same elements of plant food, though some draw more 
heavily on one element and some on another. The three 
which are most largely used and most likely to become 
depleted are nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. The 
legumes take the nitrogen from the air and store it in the 
soil in a form available for other plants, so that if a legu- 
minous crop is grown as often as once in three years there is 
little danger of the exhaustion of this element, but nature's 
supply of potassium and phosphorus must eventually be 
supplemented. 

31— 



482 



FIELD CROPS 



Live-stock farming aids in conserving these elements, for 
live-stock products remove much less of them than grains, 
hay, and cotton. If the manure is pToperly handled and 
returned to the land, the exhaustion of the soil will be very 
slow, but it will be constantly taking place. The products 
which are sold will remove some of the potassium and phos- 




Figure 154. — Good plowing is essential to the production of good crops. 

phorus, while there will also be a considerable loss by leach- 
ing from the soil and from the manure. Some phosphorus 
and potassium should occasionally be added from outside 
sources in the form of purchased feeds or of fertilizers in 
order to maintain or to increase the fertility of the soil. 



WHAT A ROTATION SHOULD CONTAIN 

661. Classes of Crops in a Rotation. So far as their 
arrangement in a rotation is concerned, field crops may be 
divided into grass, grain, and intertilled, or '^fallow," crops. 
Grass crops include all the plants which are grown in meadows 
and pastures, such as the perennial forage grasses, clovers, 



ROTATION OF CROPS 483 

and alfalfa. These remain on the land for two or more 
years and increase the supply of vegetable matter by the 
mass of stubble and roots which they produce. All annual 
crops not intertilled will be designated in this discussion as 
grain crops. They are sown too thickly to allow intertillage, 
and occupy the land but a few months. They exhaust the 
supply of humus and plant food elements, and are also 
exhaustive of soil moisture. This class of crops includes 
wheat, oats, barley, rye, flax, buckwheat, millet, and all 
annual forage crops similarly produced. Intertilled crops 
are planted in rows wide enough apart to be tilled during a 
large part of the growing season. They are also exhaustive 
of soil fertiUty, and while the cultivation tends to ''burn out" 
or hasten the decomposition of vegetable matter, it aids in 
the changing of plant food from insoluble to soluble forms 
and also conserves moisture. Intertilled crops include corn, 
cotton, potatoes, sugar beets, tobacco, and many others of 
less importance. The annual leguminous forage crops may 
be cultivated like corn or sown broadcast. Their effect on 
the soil is very similar to that on other crops, except for 
their ability to add nitrogen. 

662. The Essentials of a Good Rotation. The essentials 
of a good rotation are : 

An intertilled crop. 

A crop for cash returns, 

A crop for feeding to live stock, and 

A crop to increase the supply of vegetable matter and 
nitrogen. 
Two or more of these essentials may be embraced in a single 
crop. Thus clover supplies a crop for live-stock feeding, 
and is one which increases the supply of humus and nitro- 
gen. Corn is a cultivated crop, and may be either a cash 
crop or one for feeding to live stock. 

663. An Intertilled Crop. As already stated, weeds 
increase when grain crops are grown, and the methods of 



484 



FIELD CROPS 




nOTATION OF (JItOPH 485 

destroying them are limited. Some classes of weeds increase 
in meadows and pastures. An intertilled crop is needed at 
intervals to subdue weeds and to keep them from over- 
running the land. Tillage aids in retaining the soil moisture 
and in liberating sup[>lics of plant food. Stirring the soil 
allows the air to penetrate to the roots of the plants and 
enables them to grow better than in hard, cloddy ground. 
The aeration of the soil also improves its texture and pro- 
vides more favorable? conditions for the growth and work of 
some of the beneficial Ijacteria. 

C64. A Crop for Cash Returns. It is essential, if the 
work of the farm is to Ixi ma/Je profitable, that at least one 
crop be grown for cash returns. It need not necessarily be 
one which is sr^ld in its natural state, for it may 1x3 converted 
on the farm into animal products and then market^^d. On 
many farms, however, some crop is grown for direct sales 
for cash or its equivalent. If no cash crop is grown, there 
is no opportunity to increase the available funds for neces- 
sary improvements or for the purchase of food and clothing 
and other necessities of life which cannot \)q produced on 
the farm. It might be possible to follow a rotation of crops 
which would rapidly increase the available supply of plant 
food by growing only such crops as clover, rye, and cowpeas 
and continually plowing them under as green manure crops, 
but this practice would yield no cash returns and could be 
followed only where there was some source of income from 
outside the farm, in general, the growing of a cash crop is 
a necessity. Cotton, wheat, potatoes, tobacco, flax, barley, 
and sugar beets are important crops which are grown for 
direct sales. Hay and corn frequently l>ecome cash crops 
indirectly by marketing them through live stock. 

665. A Crop for Feeding to Live Stock. At least one 
crop should \)(t included in the rotation which can be used 
for feeding to hve stock. The necessary work stock should 
be fed, as far as possible, on products grown on the farm, 



486 FIELD CROPS 

for it is usually cheaper to grow their feed than to purchase 
it. It is generally profitable to keep some cattle, hogs, and 
sheep, or at least one of these classes of animals, to con- 
vert much that is grown on the farm into more readily 
marketable or more valuable products, and at the same time 
to return to the land in the manure a large part of the fer- 
tility which is removed by the crops. Live-stock farming 
will postpone soil exhaustion much longer than grain farm- 
ing if no fertility is brought to the farm from outside sources. 
Among the crops which may be grown for live-stock feeding 
are corn, grass, clover, alfalfa, oats, and barley. 

666. A Crop to Supply Vegetable Matter and Nitrogen. 
It is necessary to conserve the supply of vegetable matter in 
the soil, in order to maintain profitable crop yields. The 
exhaustion of the vegetable matter makes the soil ''hard to 
work"; it becomes stiff and lifeless, bakes and clods badly, 
and dries out very quicklj^ Vegetable matter improves 
the physical condition of the land and increases its moisture- 
holding capacity. The acids formed through the decay 
of this organic matter also help to unlock the unavailable 
supply of some of the elements of plant food by changing 
the nature of the compounds and by acting as a stronger 
solvent than water. Nitrogen, the most expensive of the 
three elements of plant food usually purchased in the form of 
commercial fertilizers, can be added to the soil very cheaply 
through the medium of leguminous crops. The grasses 
increase the supply of vegetable matter; the legumes increase 
the supply of both vegetable matter and nitrogen. Vege- 
table matter is also added to the soil in corn and cotton 
stalks, straw, stubble, and manure. The more important 
crops to supply vegetable matter are clover, alfalfa, the 
perennial grasses, cowpeas, soy beans, field peas, and green 
manure crops such as rye, vetch, and rape. 

667. What Crops to Grow. The crops which are included 
in the rotation depend entirel}^ on the kind of farming which is 



ROTATION OF CROPS 487 

followed, the crops which succeed best in the locality, and 
the individual preferences of the farmer. All the farm 
need not necessarily be included m a single rotation. It may 
be advisable to have a primary rotation for the greater part 
of the land, and a secondaiy one for a smaller portion of it 
which is different in texture or fertility, or to supply crops 
for a special purpose. Thus the greater portion of the farm 
may be devoted to the production of wheat and potatoes, 
with clover to complete the rotation. A rotation which 
includes these three crops embraces two cash crops, wheat 
aud potatoes; an intertilled crop, potatoes; a crop for live 
stock, clover, with the wheat straw as roughage and bedding; 
and a crop to add humus and nitrogen, clover. Such a 
system would not supply enough feed other than clover hay 
for any large number of live stock. If the section is adapted 
to the production of corn, either for grain or for forage, that 
crop might be added to the rotation, or a secondaiy rotation 
might be devised on another part of the farm, in which corn, 
oats, and clover may be grown. Here ah three crops would 
be suitable for feeding to live stock; all might be considered 
as cash crops, as they would be marketed through the live- 
stock products; corn would supply the intertilled crop, and 
clover, the vegetable matter. 

668. When to Apply Manure. Many of the best systems 
of crop rotation, as already stated, include the feeding on the 
farm of a large proportion of the crops which are produced, 
and the return of the fertility in the form of manure. As 
a general thing, this manure may be applied to best advantage 
to the grass crop or to the cultivated crops. Wlienever it is 
practicable, it should be hauled to the field during the winter 
as it is made, as the loss from leaching there is less than if it is 
left in the barnyard. If the manure can be stored under 
cover where it will not leach away, it may be left to decay. 
Well-rotted manure is less bulky and likely to contain 
dangerous weed seeds than fresh manure; but under most 



488 



FIELD CROPS 



other conditions it should be appHed to the field as soon as 
possible, because there is less waste than in rotted manure, 
and the active rotting of fresh manure in the soil warms 
it and aids bacterial and chemical action. Manure may be 
applied to meadows at any time except during a few weeks 
before haying, while it may be spread on pastures through- 




Figure 156.— The manure spreader distributes the manure evenly over the soil 
so that it can be plowed under without trouble and placed where it will be 
most easily reached by crops. The easiest way to handle manure is to load 
it directly into the spreader from the stable. 

out the year, though it is usually best to apply it to them 
during the winter. In the South, where a perennial grass crop 
is not often grown, manure is usually put on the land before 
planting the principal crop, which is generally cotton or corn. 

669. Length of the Rotation. The length of the rotation 
depends on the crops which it includes and the system of 
farming which is followed. It may be a 2-year, 3-year, or 
4-year rotation, or it may be planned for a much longer period. 
The most common rotations are 3-year, 4-year, and 5-year ones. 

SOME SUGGESTIVE ROTATIONS 

670. Rotations for Various Sections. It is not possible 
to outline a single rotation or even several rotations which 
will fit all cases, for that matter must be left to the needs, 



8UGOE8TIVE ROTATIONS 489 

facilities, and inclinations of the individual farmer. The 
rotations that are suggested here are in more or less common 
use, and include the principal crops of the sections specified. 
They may be varied in almost innumerable ways. 

671. In New England, special crops are grown or special 
lines of farming are followed in the different sections, and the 
rotations depend entirely on the particular system in vogue 
in the locality. AVliere potatoes are the main crop, the rota- 
tion is often as follows: 1, potatoes; 2, oats, with clover 
seeded in the oats; 3, clover.^ The clover may be left for two 
years, or the potatoes may be grown for two years in suc- 
cession. In the dairy sections, fodder corn is one of the 
principal crops. Here the rotation may be: 1, corn, cut for 
silage, followed by rye; 2, lye, plowed under for green ma- 
nure, followed by corn and rye as before; 3, rye, with clover 
seeded in it; 4, clover. In the tobacco district, tobacco 
may take the place of the second crop of corn. 

672. In the North Atlantic states, dairying is generally 
important. Here a common rotation is: 1, corn; 2, wheat, 
seeded to clover and grass; 3, meadow; 4, pasture. The 
pasture may be left for one or more years. A little farther 
south, where cowpeas and crimson clover can be grown, the 
rotation may be: 1, corn; 2, wheat, followed by cowpeas; 
3, cowpeas, cut early for hay, followed by grass; 4, meadow; 
5, pasture. The simple 3-year rotation of corn, wheat, 
clover, or corn, oats, clover, may also be followed. 

673. In the Southeastern states, rotations are less com- 
mon, for the land is kept quite constantly in cotton. On 
account of the possibility of growing several crops during 
the year, many different combinations of crops may be made. 
One which includes the two most important crops, corn and 
cotton, and also embraces all the features of a good rotation, 

1 In this discussion of rotations, the figures refer to the year in the rotation. 
Thus, in the one just given, a crop of potatoes is grown on a given piece of land 
the first year; the second year it is sown to oats, with clover seeded in the oats; 
while the third year it is a clover meadow or pasture. If potatoes are grown for 
two years, it would be: 1, potatoes; 2, potatoes; 3, oats; 4, clover. 



490 



FIELD CROP 8 



is: 1, cotton, followed by rye or bur clover; 2, corn, with cow- 
peas sown in the corn, followed by winter oats or winter 
barley; 3, winter grain followed by cowpeas cut for hay, the 
land then being sown to rye or some other winter cover crop. 
A more simple rotation, but one which lacks an essential 
feature of all cropping systems for the South, the winter cover 

crop, is: 1, corn and cowpeas; 2, win- 
ter grain, followed by cowpeas; 3, 
cotton; 4, cotton or corn. A simple 
alternation may be followed in some 
sections, such as cotton and bur clover 
or winter wheat and cowpeas. With 
the addition of phosphorus and potas- 
sium, this is very successful. 

674. Rotations in the Central States. 
In the Central states, in what is com- 
monly known as the corn belt, the one 
crop on which all systems of farming 
are based is corn. The three principal 
crops are corn, wheat, and grass or 
corn, oats, and grass, and they are ar- 
ranged in the rotation in the order 
named. Two crops of corn may be 
grown in succession or the land may be left in grass for one, 
two, or more years, either as meadow or pasture. A very 
common form of this rotation is the 5-year one, as follows: 
1, corn; 2, corn; 3, oats (or wheat); 4, meadow; 5, pasture. 
It is possible in the southern part of the corn belt to grow 
a crop after grain, if the land is not seeded to grass. A 
rotation embracing this feature might be devised like this: 1, 
corn; 2, oats, followed by cowpeas or soy beans; 3, wheat; 4, 
meadow; 5, pasture. 

In Minnesota, Wisconsin, and the Dakotas, some of the 
rotations used in New York and New England may be profit- 
ably followed. In the Dakotas and farther west, rotations 



1919 


CORN 


1920 


OATS 


1921 


CLOVER 


1922 


CORN 


1919 


CLOVER 


1920 


CORN 


1921 


OATS 


1922 


CLOVER 


1919 


OATS 


1920 


CLOVER 


1921 


CORN 


1922 


OATS 



Figure 157. — The arrange- 
ment of the fields and 
crops in a 3-year rotation 
of corn, oats, and clover. 



ROTATIONS IN THE FAR WEST 



491 



are not commonly practiced, only small grain crops being 
extensively grown. A system of farming based on a single 
class of crops can hardly be called a rotation. The land is 
usually sown to flax when it is first broken; wheat is then 
grown for a period of years, when one or two crops of oats 

or barley may be introduced, to be fol- 
lowed again by wheat. Under this 
system, weeds increase rapidly, and 
it is often necessary to resort to the 
bare fallow or, preferably, to introduce 
a cultivated crop to control them. 
The crops which are commonly intro- 
duced are corn and potatoes, and both 
are usually grown with success. 

675. Rotations in the Far West. 
In the Great Plains, Rocky Mountain, 
and Pacific states the systems of farm- 
ing are yet too new for any general 
series of rotations to have been adopted. 
One which may be follow^ed in the irri- 
gated districts embraces three or four 
successive crops of alfalfa, followed by 
one or two crops of potatoes or sugar 
beets and perhaps one or more of bar- 
ley, wheat, or oats, when the land is 
^Ihrrofatl^n in ¥S??o1 ^gaiu Seeded to alfalfa. In California, 
Soth';STown '^thXe on the dry lands where grain is grown, 
tteTrsTUrafy^si"/- ^ moro or less definite sequence of 
p'Siuid'''^"'^'^''''^'^' wheat, barley, and oats is sometimes 

followed, but rotations which embrace 
all the desirable features are Httle known. 

LABORATORY AND FIELD EXERCISES 

1. Draw a plan of the home farm or of some farm in the neighbor- 
hood and show the crops which are now grown on it. If a definite 
rotation is now followed, tell whether it is a good one. If it is not, 



1919 


CORN 


1920 


OATS 


1921 


MEADOW 


1922 


PASTURE 


1923 


CORN 






1919 


OATS 


1920 


MEADOW 


1921 


PASTURE 


1922 


CORN 


1923 


OATS 


1919 


MEADOW 


1920 


PASTURE 


1921 


CORN 


1922 


OATS 


1923 


MEADOW 


1919 


PASTURE 


1920 


CORN 


1921 


OATS 


1922 


MEADOW 


1923 


PASTURE 



492 FIELD CROPS 

show how it may be improved to more nearly meet the four essentials 
of a good rotation. If no rotation is followed, plan one which is suit- 
able for the type of farming which is followed. 

2. Plan a 3-year rotation, using the more important crops of 
your community and taking care that the four essentials are included. 
In the same way, plan 4-year and 5-year rotations. 

3. Plan a rotation which will be suitable for a dairy farm in your 
section; for a hog and beef-cattle farm; for the production of the lead- 
ing cash crop. 

REFERENCES 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol II, Bailey. 

Field Management and Crop Rotation, Parker. 

Farm Crops, Burkett. 

Farm Development, Hay. 

Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture, Hopkins. 

Field Crop Production, Livingston. 

Productive Farm Crops, Montgomery. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

355. A Successful Poultry and Dairy Farm. 



CHAPTER XXVII 
WEEDS 

676. Definition. A weed is any plant which is growing 
where it is not wanted ; that is, a plant out of place. A stalk 
of corn in an oat field is just as much a weed as is a thistle, 
though it may do less damage and in its place be a veiy use- 
ful plant. A plant may thus be a weed under some condi- 
tions, while it is not under others. Many of the wild plants 
of our native meadows and pastures must now be classed as 
weeds, though before the land was put to use they could 
hardly have been so regarded. The smaller plants in a 
forest are not weeds, for they are of use to shade the ground, 
prevent washing, and protect the young tree seedlings. 

677. Need for a Study of Weeds. A study of weeds is a 
very useful and necessary part of a study of field crops. In 
the production of eveiy crop weeds must ))e considered. A 
method of treatment that is efficient in destroying one weed 
or class of weeds may furnish a means for the spread of some 
other, and it is, therefore, necessary to be able to recognize 
the principal weed pests and to know how to deal v/ith them. 
The seeds of some of the most troublesome weeds frequently 
occur in grain or grass seed; hence it is important to be able 
to recognize them and to avoid sowing them with useful crops. 

CLASSES OF AVEEDS 

678. Basis of Classification. Weeds are classified accord- 
ing to the length of time they live, as annuals, biennials, and 
perennials. It is desirable to know to which class any weed 
belongs, because the methods of combating it depend very 
largely on whether it lives one, two, or several years. 

493 



494 



FIELD CROPS 



679. Annuals. An annual is a plant which makes all its 
p;rowth in a sinj^lc season. The seed g;erminates in the spring 
or summer, the plant produces blossoms and seeds the same 
year, and tlien (Ues. The seeds of some annuals germinate 

in the fall and the 
plants live over 
winter, producing 
their flowers and 
seed the following 
season, usually dur- 
ing the spring and 
early summer 
months. These 
plants are known 
as winter annuals. 
Corn is an example 
of an ordinary an- 
nual, and spring 
wlieat is another. 
Winter wheat, on 
the other hand, is 
a winter annual. 
Ragweed, crab- 
grass, foxtail, and 
mayweed are an- 
nual weeds; shep- 
herd's purse, corn 
cockle, and cheat are usually winter annuals, though the 
seed may not germinate till spring. Annuals spread only 
by means of their seed. 

680. Biennials lequire two years to complete their 
growth. The seeds germinate during the spring and summer 
of the first year and the plants produce an extensive root sys- 
tem, but do not develop much top growth. The following 
spring they produce a large growth of top, blossom, ripen 




Figure !.">'.). — Quack Krass, or couch ^^rasa. 



DAMAGE OF WEEDS 495 

their seed, and die. Like annuals, they spread only from 
seed. The bull thistle and burdock are familiar exami)l(;s of 
biennials, as are also cabbage, turnips, beets, and a number 
of other garden vegetables. 

681. Perennials. These are plants which may live an 
indefinite number of years. This class includes all our trees 
and shrubs, many ornamental plants, and such garden vege- 
tables as rhubarb and asparagus. Many of our worst wcieds 
are perennials. Some perennials spn^ad only from their 
geeds; others have running rootstocks or underground stems 
which grow from year to year and new plants njay spring 
up from them. Some spread by means of both seeds and 
running I'ootstocks. Perennials which spread only by seeds 
include the dandelion, docks, and plantains. The Canada 
thistle in many sections spreads only by its rootstocks and 
does not produce seeds; elsewhere it seeds abundantly. 
Other weeds which spread by both means arc Johnson grass, 
quack grass, sow thistle, and ox-eye daisy. 

THE DAMAGE DONE BY WEIODS 

682. Weeds Lower Crop Yields. Weeds occupy space 
which is needed by crops, thus cnnvding tliem out and shad- 
ing them. It is easy to see that an acn^ of wln^at will yi(;ld 
less when Canada thistle or cockle or kinghead are growing 
in it than when the wheat occupies all the land. In the 
same way, Johnson grass reduces the yield of (cotton, and 
weeds of many kinds prevent corn from making a full crop. 
The great(ist damage is often done early in the s(;asoii, by 
shading and stunting tlie crop plants before thciy get well 
started. Weeds take plant food whi(;h is needed by crops. 
It is next to useless to apply manure or fertilizer to land and 
then allow weeds to use it. Weeds also take moisture from 
the soil at a time when crops need it most. 

Weeds lower crop yields by harboring insects anrl diseases. 
In some cases, weeds arc infested with the same diseases as 



496 



FIELD CROPS 



are crop plants. This is true of the root rot of cotton and 
other plants in the South, which may maintain a foothold 
in fields by living on weeds when crops it does not affect are 
grown there. Many weeds of the mustard family help to 
spread clubroot of the cabbage and turnip. When the dis- 
eases do not actually 
Uve on the weeds, the 
latter may make con- 
ditions favorable for 
their development on 
crop plants. Thus 
rust and mildew are 
produced most readily 
in shady, damp situ- 
ations, such as are 
found where the 
growth of weeds is 
rank. Weeds may 
harbor insects by sup- 
plying them with food 
when crop plants are 
not available, or by 
furnishing them a safe 
refuge over winter 
under rubbish along 
fence rows or in fields, thus adding to their own injuriousness. 
683. Weeds Lower the Value of Crop Products. The 
presence of weeds or weed seeds in crop products often 
lowers their value. Buyers of grain quite often make an 
unjustifiable dockage in weight or price for the presence of 
any noticeable quantity of weed seeds. If the grower removes 
the seeds before marketing, they increase the cost of pro- 
duction by the labor which is required to separate them from 
the grain. Weeds in hay materially affect the value of that 
product for the market or for feeding. Weeds in grain crops 




Figure 100. — Canada thistle. 



DAMAGE OF WEEDS 497 

make the bundles more bulky and thus more twine is required 
to harvest the crop. They increase the weight of the crop 
which must be handled, both of grain and hay. They in- 
crease the expense of gathering the crop by delaying har- 
vesting operations, as in cotton, potato, and corn fields. 
Rank, succulent growth of weeds delays the curing of hay 
and grain crops, and may thus reduce their quality. 

684. Weeds Injure Pastures. In addition to crowding 
out useful pasture plants and using plant food and moisture, 
weeds decrease the value of pastures in other ways. They 
may be distasteful to animals, either on account of their odor 
or taste or because they are armed with spines or thorns, 
causing stock to avoid their vicinity and thus allowing a 
portion of the useful pasture grasses to go to waste. They 
may injure animals which eat them by causing irritation, as 
in the case of the beards of wild barley or squirreltail grass, 
or they may be actually poisonous, as the loco weed of the 
western prairies and the laurel of the Southeastern states. 

685. Weeds Injure Animal Products. Another way in 
which weeds injure the farmer is by causing a loss in the value 
of certain animal products. The seeds of such weeds as 
burdock, stickseed and cocklel^ur adhere to wool and reduce 
its value materially. They also injure the appearance of 
animals by clinging to the manes and tails of horses and the 
tails of cattle. Other weeds, when eaten by dairy cows, 
cause a disagreeable odor or taste in their products. This 
class of weeds includes the wild onion, ragweed, and French- 
weed. 

686. Weeds Reduce the Value of Land. The presence 
of noxious weeds on a farm reduces its value and lessens the 
chances of a profitable sale. A farm infested with Canada 
thistles, quack grass, or Johnson grass cannot be sold as 
readily nor at as high a price as one which is free from these 
weeds. Weeds along fences and roads lessen the attractive- 
ness of a farm. 

32— ■ 



498 



FIELD CROPS 



687. Weeds May Be Injurious to Man. Some weeds 
are actually injurious to man. They may cause poisoning 
from contact with them, as poison ivy, or from eating them or 
their seeds. Wild parsnips are sometimes eaten for the 

cultivated kind, with 
disastrous results. The 
seeds of corn cockle 
when ground with 
wheat into flour are 
poisonous, as are the 
seeds of some other 
weeds. 

BENEFITS FROM 
WEEDS 

688. Uses. While 
most weeds are inju- 
rious, some may be of 
value under certain 
conditions. Leaves of 
dandelions and young 
shoots of pokeroot are 
eaten as vegetables. 
Many weeds furnish 
pasture of more or less 
value, though none of our domestic animals except sheep 
ordinarily eat weeds when the more tender and nutritious 
pasture plants are available. Sheep eat many kinds of weeds, 
and are very often useful in keeping down these pests in 
pastures and along fences. Weeds furnish a cover to land 
which is not in crop, and may prevent loss of soil fertility 
by leaching or by erosion. Deep-rooting weeds bring up 
some plant food from the lower layers of the soil, and render 
it available for crops which follow. They also open passages 
for the movement of the soil moisture and make it easier for 



i 




I 




ft jfiJK^ 

"1 / 


r 1 

, ^ ,.1 
r -:^ 






s 


& 


M 




"vf 


^ 



Figure IGl. — Ragweed. 



HOW WEEDS SPREAD 499 

the roots of crops to penetrate the subsoil. Weeds add to 
the vegetable matter in the soil when they are plowed under 
and increase the plant food which is available for useful 
crops which follow. All these purposes are served to better 
advantage, however, by growing cultivated plants adapted 
to the particular use. 

689. Weeds Make Cultivation and Rotation Necessary. 
Weeds are sometimes commended because they make neces- 
sary the cultivation of the soil, which might otherwise be 
neglected to the injury of crops. This cultivation both 
'keeps down weeds and prevents the loss of soil moisture. 
Another benefit from weeds is that they often force the use 
of a system of crop rotation which might not otherwise 
be adopted. Some weeds which are practically impossible 
to control in grain fields soon disappear when a cultivated 
crop is grown or the land is seeded to grass. When mustard, 
wild oats, or other weeds become very plentiful in fields 
where small grain is grown continuously, they can best be 
checked by growing a crop of corn or potatoes and culti- 
vating it thoroughly. This practice is good, even when no 
weeds are present, but it might not be adopted if the weeds 
had not compelled its use. Many weeds of meadows and 
pastures are easily killed by cultivation. Thus the rotation 
of crops is an efficient means of subduing weeds. 

HOW WEEDS SPREAD 

690. Dissemination. Some weeds have few or limited 
means of distribution, while others are provided with many 
agencies of dissemination. Natural agencies, such as the 
movement of wind and water, play a large part in the spread 
of weeds. Animals, both wild and domestic, carry the seeds 
from place to place. The activities of man, however, are 
perhaps the greatest factor in spreading weeds. 

691. Natural Agencies. An important natural agency 
by which weeds spread is the movement of air currents. The 



500 FIELD CROPS 

seeds of many plants are so light or they are provided with 
appendages of such a nature that they are easily carried long 
distances by the wind. The seeds of the milkweed, thistle, 
and dandelion spread more widely by winds than by any 
other means. Some plants, as the tumbleweeds and the 
Russian thistle, retain their seeds in the capsules for several 
months after they ripen. The stems are broken off by the 
winter winds and driven across the fields, distributing their 
seeds as they go. Some seeds which are not readily carried 
by wind alone are carried by drifting snow. 

Water is an e-ficient agent in the spread of weeds. The 
seeds may float on its surface, or they may be carried along 
with soil or driftwood. The roots or branches of weeds may 
be washed out by sudden freshets or the cutting away of 
stream banks and be carried to new locations. Bottom 
lands are ordinarily infested with weeds, as the seeds are 
washed down from the surrounding higher lands and depos- 
ited on the bottoms. 

Some plants are provided with special mechanisms which 
aid in their dissemination. The vetches and some members 
of the pea family have pods that twist suddenly when they 
open, throwing the seeds in different directions. Others, 
like the wild oats, have twisted awns or appendages which 
coil or uncoil with changes in the weather and aid in burying 
the seeds. Various other plants are provided with special 
means of distribution of this nature, but these are seldom 
efficient in spreading the plant for any distance. 

Another means by which plants spread, but which tends 
to localize them unless assisted by water, animals, or man, is 
by the extension of their own growth. Quack grass, Canada 
thistle, Johnson grass, and many other plants increase by 
means of running rootstocks, which send up shoots at inter- 
vals and form new plants. Others, like crabgrass, have 
creeping or running stems which root at the joints and may 
form new plants, if broken off. 



HOW WEEDS SPREAD 501 

692. Animals. Wild and domestic animals both aid in 
carrying weeds from place to place. Some weed seeds are 
provided with hooks which cling to the wool or hair, as the 
cocklebur, burdock, and beggar's-ticks. Others are stored 
as food by animals or by birds and are forgotten, springing 
up as plants in new locations the following year. Ground 
squirrels, prairie dogs, and other burrowing animals store 
large quantities of grass and weed seeds, not all of which are 
consumed, and some of which are not buried so deeply that 
they fail to grow. Weed seeds are eaten by birds, carried 
by them for long distances, and then, passing through their 
digestive systems unharmed, are dropped in new localities. 
Branches of weeds bearing seeds may be used by birds or 
animals in building nests and thus disseminated. The 
droppings of live stock furnish a local means of distribution 
from one field of the farm to another when animals are 
changed from pasture to pasture or worked in the field. 

693. The Activities of Man. Human operations furnish 
many of the methods of weed distribution, some of which are 
hardest to counteract. Vehicles along roads or from fields 
often, particularly in damp weather, carry seed in the mud 
which sticks to them. Tillage implements and the work of 
tillage furnish another means of distribution. Weed seeds 
or the weeds themselves may be carried from place to place 
on the implements, or may be moved with the movement of 
earth in tillage. Roots of perennial weeds are often carried 
by tillage tools; for this reason, poor or occasional cultiva- 
tion of fields infested with quack grass, Johnson grass, or 
weeds that spread by similar means is often worse than no 
cultivation at all. Threshing machinery furnishes a ready 
means by which weed seeds are carried from farm to farm. 

Railroads are a great agency in the spread of weeds, as 
they often carry weed seeds long distances in the bedding 
of cars, in shipments of grain, and in other material. The 
seeds may drop out along the right of way or be cleaned out 



r)02 I'll: LI) CKOPH 

wilJi the bedding at terminal i)oints. In the latter case, they 
ai(i voiy likely to be transported to near-by farms in manure. 
Many weeds first appear in new localities along the railroads, 
and then si)read to adjoiniFig fic^lds. 

Packing n).'it(Mijd for nin'sery stcxrk and other Mrticles 
which are brought to the farm fnjm distant points furnishes 
another means for the si)read of weeds. Weed seeds are also 
(;arri(Ml fi-om fniin to farm or from one locality to another in 
grain and hay which are purc^hased for feeding. The seeds 
pass into tlio manure and an^ Wnm S])read to th(i lic^lds. 

The sowing of weed seeds with grain, grass, or (^lov(ir scxuls 
is one of \\w. most frecpient methotis by which the dissemi- 
nation of these pests is effected. 

MlOrilOJJS OF ERADICATION 

694. Weed Laws. Many states hav(^ adopted laws to 
l)revent W\v. sprt^ad of weeds. Weed conli'ol laws are of two 
forms, those which recpiin^ the destruction of certain weeds 
along roads and i-ailroad rights of way and, in some cases, 
in fields, and those which are aimed to control th(^ dissemi- 
nation of wecnl s(hhIs in the seeds of grain and grassc^s sold by 
(ieal(M"S. The laws in the various statics (hffcu' greatly in 
their stringency and ediciency, some states being practically 
without l(^gal means of weed control. 

695. Annual Weeds. Oik^ of lh(^ mosi effective means of 
eradicating annual weculs is to prevent them from producing 
s(hm1s. As they hav(^ no other nutans of living over fi'om year 
to year, ammal wchhIs would soon Ix^ (U^stroyed if seed pro- 
duction wer(^ entirely pi-event-ed. This, of course, is not 
practical, l)ut, (^very possible means vshou Id b(^ used to reduce 
the numb(M- of seeds whicih mature;. Weeds of all kinds are 
kilUul very easily when they are small by stirring the soil 
sudiciently to exi)ose their roots to the sun. Harrowing or 
disking will destroy weeds soon after the seeds gcn'ininate, 
which perhaps would survive nmch moi'e severe treatment 



ERADICATION OF WEEDS 



]()?, 



li few weeks later. The frequent use of the cultivator helps 
to keep down annual and other weeds in cultivated fields. 
Various methods of preventing annual weeds from producing 
seed are suggested in the paragraphs which follow on i\w 
treatment of weeds in special crops. 
696. Biennial Weeds. 




Figure 102. — Squirreltail. 



Biennial weeds are nei- 
ther as numerous nor as 
difficult to eradicate as 
•the annuals with their 
great powers of seed pro- 
duction, or the perennials 
with their persistent 
roots. Cutting off the 
plants };elow the crown 
during the first year or at 
any time in the second 
before the flowers are 
profluced will kill bien- 
nial weeds. Biennial weeds are seldom troublesome in cul- 
tivated fields, for they are usually destroyed by plowing. 
In other locations, the quickest and easiest method is to cut 
off the plants below the surface of the ground with a small 
spade. 

697. Perennial Weeds. Cultivation is the most efficient 
means of. destroying perennial weeds. Smothering the roots 
by preventing them from producing leaves, by frequent cul- 
tivation, by covering with straw or other material, or by 
sowing with some quick-grov/ing crop like rape or sorghum, 
is often successful. One of the best Avays of eradicating per- 
sistent perennials is to plow them under about the time the 
plants arc coming into bloom and to cultivate the land so 
thoroughly during the rest of the season with the disk or 
spike-tooth harrow as to prevent them from producing leaves. 
The next season the land may be put into a cultivated crop 



504 



FIELD CROPS 



sucli as corn, cotton, or i)otatocs. A smother croj) mjty occa- 
sionally bo substituted for the frequent hai'rowings of the 
first year, with as good results and with far less expense, 
though this method is not relia])le, on account of the difficulty 

of getting a stand sufficiently 
thick in every part of the field 
totllorouglllysmothertho^veed 
growth. 

698. Weeds in Cultivated 
Fields, sphere is less excuse 
for weeds in cultivated fields 
than almost anywhere else. 
The seeds of cultivated plants 
are not too small to be sepa- 
rated readily from weed seeds, 
A\hile the frequent cultivation 
which is given should be ef- 
f(H'tive in keeping down any 
\\e(Hls that api^ear after the 
crop is planted. Cultivation 
sometimes fails to serve its 
i:)urpose, because the work is 
not done frequently enougli or at the right time, or is not 
thorough. The most otTective cultivation may be given 
before the crop is planted. The land should be well plow- 
ed, and, if it is left without a crop for any length of time 
during the growing season, it should be disked and har- 
rowed at intervals of a week or ten days to kill any weeds 
that start. Small weeds are very rapidly and effectively 
destroyed with a harrow or weeder. The land should be 
harrowed just before the crop is planted, and the harrowing 
may usually be repeated a few days later, either just before 
or just after- it comes up. 

With some intertilled crops, the first two or three culti- 
vations can be gi^•en very rapidly and cheaply with the har- 




I'iKurc Ui;?. — Kill! thistle 



ERADICATION OF WEEDS 



505 



row or weeder. Later cultivations should be with tools that 
stii* the surface soil sufficiently to kill small weeds and main- 
tain a dust mulch. Weeds that come up in the row should be 
hoed or pulled out if necessary, though they may often be 
destroyed when small by covoiing them with earth in culti- 
vating. Cultivation 
should be continued as 
long as possible without 
injury to the growing 
,crop, or until the grounrl 
is completely shaded. 
Poor cultivation, es- 
pecially on fields that are 
infested with perennial 
weeds, is often worse 
than none at all, as it sim- 
ply serves to spread the 
weeds. Among the most 
common weeds of culti- 
vated crops are nut 
grass, Johnson grass, fox- 
tail, crabgrass, quack 
grass, knotweed, morn- 
ing-glory, velvet weed, 
milkweed, Canada this- 
tle, sow thistle, ragweed, 
and kinghcad. Weeds and poor farming go together. 

699. Weeds of Grain Fields. In wheat, oat, barley, 
and other-small grain fields, less opportunity is afforded for 
the destruction of weeds than in cultivated crops. Here 
most of the work must be done before the seed is sown. The 
same kind of preparation, so far as possible, should be given 
as has already been recommended for land which is to be 
pl.mted to cultivated crops. Great care should be taken 
to insure the sowing of clean seed. It is of little use to harrow 




Jitfuio 104. — Wild ijuckw l)(,ut., or knotweed, 
bhowing tho way in whicli it twines around 
crop plants with which it is growing. 



noG 



FIELD CROPS 



aiid disk land to clear it of woods and then put on a new sup- 
ply of wood seeds with the sood grain. The harrow or wood- 
or may often bo used in fields of drilled ji^rain to destroy small 
weeds during;- the first few weeks of spring;. The harrowinji; 
shouKl h(^ done with the drill rows rather than across them. 




l"i>;uiT lt)">. Blossom tviul root of wild ii\ust;inl; ulso (,1) tlu' ripo stvil pod; (2) 
the blossom, iiml (,;}) tho soods. 



Harrowing- broadcast grain will help to keep down weeds, 
but it will also retluce the stand of grain. Ragweed and other 
weeds which come up in grain fields after harvest may be 
prevented from seeding by mowing them when they first 
come into bloom, by pasturing, preferably with sheep, or b>' 
disking the land. 

Among the common weeds of grain fields are wild oats, 
wild garlic, wild nuistard, Frenchweed, pep])ergrass, smart- 
weed, Russian thistle, knotweed, wild morning-glory, corn 
cockle, milkweed, marsh elder, ragweed, kinghead, Canada 
thistle, and sow thistle. 



/'JItADICATION or WEEDH 



307 



700. Spraying. I'lie use of chemicals in destroyinj^ weeds 
in ^rain fi(;lds, and to a lesser extent in meadows, pastures, 
and lawns, has come into prominence in recent years. If 
applied while the plants are youn^, the chemical spray is 
effective in killinj^ practically all broad-leaved plants, while 
it does littU; injury to tlie j^rains and grasses. A single 




Figure. 166, — Thfi result of HprayinK Krain fichJH with iron Hulphat*;. The portion 
at the left han been Bprayed; the uriwprayed portion at the ri^ht appearn to be 
a Moli'l rnHBH of rnuHtard. 



application will kill many annual weeds and young plants 
of the biennials and perennials, but several applications must 
be made to kill the older perennials, as only the top growth 
will be destroyed by the earlier sprayings. The most com- 
mon ch(;mical which is used is iron sulphate, at the rate of 
100 pounds to 50 gallons of water. About 50 gallons of the 
solution are required to spray an acre. The weeds which 
can be successfully treated with this spray include wild 
mustard, Frenchweed, peppergrass, shepherd's purse, rag- 
weed, kinghead, and marsh elder. It is less effective on 



508 FIELD CHOPS 

Ciinadii thistle, (hmdc^lioii, mihI othor more pcM'sistcMit weeds, 
unless the ticNitiiuuit is i'e|)(^;ite(l several tinu^s. Clover and 
alfalfa, .*ii*e iiijui(Ml moic or less hy any chemical spmy. 

701. Weeds in Meadows. As in ^rain fields, i)ievention 
is inorc^ (^("f(H'(iv(^ (hnii nft(M- ticatinent in d(^;diii^- with W(hv1s 
in in(\i(l()\vs. \V\n> Innd should \)c. in j^ood coiuhtion wluui the 
se(ul is sown, :ui<l tlu^ s(hm1 i(se:lf siiould lu^ frec^ from wec^l 
seeds. C-lippinji; tlu^ held in I lie f;dl iiUvr Ihe Innd has been 
seeded to ^'rass will i)revent many weeds from s(HMlin^-. Tho 
seedimi; of weeds in oldiM- nu^adows may oftcui be prevented 
by cuttinii; the hay crop a lit(l(^ (Mirlier than would otlnu'wise 
be done. Such weculs as burdock, bull (Jiisth^, and nnilUun 
may bo exterminatcul })y cutl-inji; tluMn off Ix^low the crown 
before they produce seed, lireakin^- up (he mt^adow and 
practicini!; a, I'otation of (a<)i)S may \)o. ihi) only effective- 
means of (n-adicatin";- some p(n*emiial W(hh1s. The most (lom- 
!non W(^tMls of meadows ar(^ morninp;-^l()iy, milkweed, dock, 
sluH'p sorrel, toadflax, ()X-(\ye daisy, flie plaiilains, orange 
hawkweiMl, Clanada, and other thistles, and (|ua.ck p;i-ass. 

702. Weeds in Pastures. In pastures, tlu^ nu^thods of 
eradicat-inji; wccmIs ai'c^ nuK^h the same as in nx^adows. Per- 
sist.(Mit vve(nls may mak(^ it nc;c(\ssa,ry to bn^ak uj) t,h(^ i)a.st,ur(^ 
and ^row a, (uiltivaXcMl (M'op. \Vher(^ it is not ])ra,('ticabl(* to 
do so, re|)eaf(Ml mowinj;s when in ))lossom oi' (Milling' bi(Mmia.l 
and peremiial wcscmIs below the; surface of the «;round will 
eventually weaken them and i)i-event theii" spi'eaxl. Sheep 
i'end(M' }2;reat assistance in k(U'i)in^- down wchhIs in ])astures. 
Amon<;' tlu^ mor(^ common past ur(^ wchmIs in dif'fercMit S(M't ions 
of tli(^ (U)untry are S(iuiii"elta,il ^rass, or wild barley, broom 
s(Ml^-e, blue vervain, sIkm^p sorrel, Russian tJiistle, milkweed, 
mullein, yarrow, and Canada, bull, and sow IhistU^s. 

703. Roadside Weeds. Tho weeds of roadside^s are usu- 
ally much th(^ sanu^ as thosc^ of meadows and pastures, thoui;h 
on new j»;radin^" animal weeds ar(^ likely to mak(^ a VAwk 
j»;r()wth. Mowinjj; two or three times duriu};' the season to 



RfJFERENCEfi 509 

pn;v(;nt i\\(t production oi Hr;od, and WH^lin^ Uat roadsides 
heavily to graH.s and r}<>v(tr will keef> down wcjeds and pre- 
vent their Hpread to adjoining fi(ilds. Common loadnide 
weeds are ragweed, kingliead, Hunflowers, marsh elder, cockle- 
bur, f>ull thintlc;, JiniHon W(;ed, velvetwcK^l, and sweet clover. 

LABORA'IORV AND I'JKLi; KXERCISE.S 

1. ]i(;f- (!ju;h ini;tn\>cT fjf i\\(; (-lasH bring in fiv(; wr;<;ds, Lciurn the 
nJiinoH of tlK'KC wi'A'.dn urid dfJHcrilx; their inoHt iriif>ort;int (;huruot(;riKti(;H. 
Thin Htudy kIiouM in<;hido their hahit of growtfi, duration and nature 
of root KyHt(;in, time of Hetiding, Heed liabitK, and charaeter« wliiffi make 
cradieation easy or difficult. 

2. IVIak(! a Htudy of weed Heedtt, ho tliat each njembe-r of tiie ehiHS 
will Ifiarn to reeoj^nize tlie rnon; common weed needn in variouH kindn 
of field H(;edH. SampleH of ^'"'^1" ''I'd forage-ero[) Hcedw l^rouglit in or 
preparf;d, eonfaining W(!<;<1 needn, may be iiiHjxietetJ ;ind tlu; weed need 
H(!parated ami id(!n<ified. Many of the exp(;riment KtalionH jmt U]> 
ca«c8 containing «mall Hami)les of the more common weed HccdH, wJiicii 
may bo of>t!iined at Hmall cost and used for i)urj)f)s;eK of identificjilion. 

3. If Hmall vialn or cuhch can l>e j^rovided, each liujul might make a 
collection of the HccdH of the moHt common wecdH of the vicinity. TIiIh 
cxcreiHO will be of much value in identifying weed Heedn in the Heeds 
of field cro[)H. 

RIOFKRENCES 

(Jycloj^edia of American y\griculiiire, Vol. 11, liailcjy. 

Farm Weedn of Canada, ('lark. 

(Common Wc^edn of th(! I^'arm, J^ong. 

W(!edH of th(i Farm nnd (Jarden, Pammel. 

We(;dH and How to JOradicafxi Tliem, Shaw. 

Manual of Wetidn, G(!orgia. 

l'arm(!rH' Rulh^liriH: 

270. A M<;t,hod of Eradicating Johnson Grass. 

382. TIk! Adijlteratiori of I'orage-Plant Seeds. 

428. 'J\!Hf ing I'arm Seeds in 1h(! IIr)me and in the Rural Sch(j(jl. 

610. Wild Onion: Mritliods of ]<>adi(;;ilion. 

000. Wcicds: How t,o Control Them. 

678, J'>adic;ilion of Ferns from I';iHture Lands in the E.'ist(rn 
United States. 

833. Methods of Controlling or Eradicating Wild Oats in the 
Hard Spring Wheat Area. 



INDEX 



Abflorption of water, 31. 

AgrJculturv, dcjfinition of, 12. 

Air, 31. 38. 

Alcohol, 108. 

Alfalfa. 

Coruposition, 303; curing, 300; cle- 

cription, 3r>l; diwcasefi, 30.0; harvest- 

K, 301; inoculation, 3f»8; insecta, 

04; niakini^ hay, 3.09; njRal, 304; 

nurjic crop, 3.08; origin and hihtory, 

3.01; pasture, 304; j^reparation of the 

land, 3.00; production, 3.03; rotations, 

361; Hoiling, 304; soils and fertilizers, 

356; BOwing, 3.0O; tir/ie to seed, 3.07; 

treatment of rneadowa, 359; uses, 

303; varieties, 353; yield, 364, 

Alsikc clover. 

Adaptation, 348; characters, 348; 
curing, 348; sowing, 348. 

Annual grasses, 315. 

Annual weeds, 494, 502. 

Army worm. 111, 159. 

A»Himilation, 20. 

liacteria, 3.30, 358. 

Harherry, 150. 

Barley. 

Aero value, 209; botanical characters, 
197; by-products, 212; classification, 
198; cost of production, 210; cutting, 
207; diseases, 213; exports and im- 
ports, 209; fertilizers and manures, 
204; grades, 208; harrowing, 207; 
harvesting, 207; hay and pasture, 
213; importance, 201; improvement, 
214; judging, 215; malt, 211; market- 
ing, 208; nurse and smother crop, 
210; origin and history, V.)7; prepara- 
tion of land, 205; preparing the seed, 
200; production, 201; prices, 209; 
rotation, 210; score card, 215; shock- 
ing, 207; soils, 204; storing, 208; 
threshing, 208; uses, 211; varieties, 
201. 

Barnyard millet, 325. 

Bean. 

Field, 281; soy, 374; velvet, 387. 

Beet, garden. 389. 

Beet, sugar. 

By-products, 431; characters, 390, 
420; cultivation, 428; de^scription, 
420; importance, 427; manufacture 
of sugar, 430; preparation of soil, 
390; production of seed, 429; seeding, 
391; soil. 390; storing, 429. 



Beggar's-ticks, 501. 

Bermuda grass. 

Cultivation, 300; description, 305; 
eradication, 307; origin, 305; uses, 
300. 

Billion dollar grass, 325. 

Blue grass. 

Canada, 297; Kentucky, 290. 

Blue vervain, 508. 

Bordeaux mixture, 410. 

Bread. 153, 221. 

Brewer's graii»s, 212. 

Brome grass. 

Cultivation, 311; description, 310; 
importance, 310; origin, .310; related 
plants, 310; seeding, 311; uses, 312. 

Broomcorn. 

Culture, 245; curing, 240; narvesting, 
240; marketing, 240. 

Buckwheat. 

Botanical description, 248; cultiva- 
tion, 249; importance, 248; origin and 
history, 247; uses, 2.0O; varieties, 248. 

Bull thistle, 495, 508, 509. 

Burdock, 495, 501, 508. 

Cabbage, 395. 

Calcium, 35, 38. 

Canada thistle, 495, 497, 600. 

Carbon dioxide, 35, 38. 

Carrots, 393. 

Cerealine, 108. 

Chard, 389. 

Cheat, 310, 494. 

Chinch bugs, 112. 

Chlorine, 35. 

Chlorophyll, 35. 

Classification of crops, 11. 

Clovers. 

Alsike, 348; crimson, 348; mammoth, 
333; red, 333; white, 340. 

Club wheat, 127. 

Cockle, 495. 

Cocklebur, 501. .009. 

Corn. 

Acreage, yield, value, 52, 53, 54; 
botanical character?, 40; classifica- 
tion, 47; cost of production, 81, 91; 
cultivation, 72; cultivators, 73; dent, 
48; ear test, 04; exports, 90; flint, 49; 
fodder, 82; germination, 04; grades, 
89; grading seed, 03; harvesting, 77; 
hogging off, 81; importance, 51; im- 
provement, 114; inbreeding, 117; in- 
sects, 110; judging, 119; kernels, 104; 



>11 



512 



FIELD CROPS 



marketing and returns, 88; origin 
and description, 45; manufactured 
products, 108; pasturing, 81; planters, 
71; planting, 67; preparation of soil, 
59; production of, 51; pop, 50; rota- 
tions, 93; selection of seed, 97; seed 
corn plat, 118; score cards, 120; 
shredding, 80; silage, 86; storing, 79, 
105; stover, 80; sweet, 49; time to 
mature, 47; uses, 107; varieties, 50, 
116. 

Corncrib, 79. 

Corn grader, 64. 

Corn cockle, 494, 498, 506. 

Cornmeal, 108. 

Corn oil, 108. 

Cotton. 

Bale, 452; botanical description, 439; 
cultivation, 448; diseases, 455; Egyp- 
tion, 440; exports and imports, 453; 
ginning, 451; grades, 453; growing, 
446; harvesting, 450; importance, 
442; insects, 456; marketing, 452; 
origin and history, 438; picking, 450; 
planting, 447; preparation of the 
land, 446; production, 443; prices, 
453; Sea Island, 440; soils and 
fertilizers, 445; uses, 454; varieties, 
441. 

Cowpea. 

Description, 367; diseases, 373; grow- 
ing, 370; harvesting, 381; hay, 390; 
importance, 369; insects, 373; origin, 
367; rotation, 373; soil improver, 
372; soils and fertilizers, 369; stock 
feed, 381; varieties, 368. 

Crabgrass, 494, 500, 505. 

Creeping bent grass, 302. 

Crimson clover. 

Characters, 348; sowing, 349; value, 
349. 

Crops. 

Choice of, 20; classes, 13; fiber, 17, 
437; field, 12; food, 19; forage, 16, 
253; grain, 14, 45; relative importance, 
13; root, 17, 389; sugar, IS, 426; 
stimulant, 19, 461; tuber, 17, 399; 
uses of, 19. 

Crows, 113. 

Cutworms, 111. 

Dandelion, 495, 508. 

Dent corn, 48. 

Depth to plant seeds, 25. 

Diversification of crops, 21. 

Dock, 495, 508. 

Durra, 243. 

Durum wheat, 130. 

Elements of plant food, 34. 

Emmer, 127. 

English rye grass, 313. 



Ergot, 223. 

Fanning mill, 139. 

Fertilization, 41. 

Fertilizers. See under different crops. 

Fescues, 313. 

Feterita, 243. 

Fibers, 17. 

Fiber plants. 

Classes, 437; cotton, 438; flax, 457; 
hemp, 457; jute, 459; manila, 459; 
sisal, 459. 

Field bean. 

Cultivation, 381; harvesting, 382; 
planting, 381; production, 381; thresh- 
ing, 382. 

Field crops. 

Classification, 11; definition, 12; rela- 
tive importance, 13. 

Field pea. 

Description, 379; growing, 380; hay, 
380; importance, 379* origin, 379; 
uses, 381. 

Flax. 

Acre value, 238; botanical characters, 
225; diseases, 233; grades, 232; grow- 
ing, 228; harvesting and handling, 
231; importance, 227; improvement, 
235; insects, 233; markets, 232; origin 
and history, 225; preparation of the 
land, 229; preparing the seed, 229; 
prices, 233; production, 227; rotation, 
234; soils, 228; sowing, 230; uses, 
234; wilt, 233. 

Flax wilt, 233. 

Flint corn, 49. 

Flour, 153. 

Flowers, 40, 41. 

Fodder corn, 83. 

Food, plant, 34. 

Forage crops. 

Classes, 254; definitions, 253; essen- 
tials, 257; feeding values, 259; im- 
portance, 254; nutrients, 258; pro- 
duction, 255; uses, 256; 

Formaldehyde treatment, 158, 417. 

Foxtail, 494, 505. 

Foxtail millet, 321. 

Frenchweed, 506. 

German millet, 325. 

Germination, 24, 64, 103, 263. 

Gophers, 113. 

Grain crops defined, 14. 

Grain sorghums, 241. 

Grasshoppers, 113, 159. 

Grasses. 

Barnyard millet, 325; Bermuda grass, 
305; brome grass, 310; broomcorn 
millet, 324; Canada, 297; characters, 
287; comparative values, 289; defini- 
tion, 287; differencef(, 288; English rye. 



INDEX 



513 



313; fescues, 313; forage grasses, 315 
foxtail millets, 321; importance, 289 
Italian rye, 313; Johnson grass, 308 
Kentucky blue grass, 296; miscellane- 
ous, 312; orchard grass, 303; pearl 
millet, 325; perennial, 291; quack 
grass, 312; redtop, 301; rescue, 310; 
rye grasses, 313; Sudan grass, 320; 
sorghums, 315; teosinte, 326; timothy, 
291; wood meadow, 297; wheat 
grasses, 312. 

Grass sorghums, 315. 

Growth of plants, 23. 

Hairy vetch, 386. 

Hay. 

Acre yield, 272; baling, 278; ciu-ing, 
275; cutting, 275; machinery, 277; 
market classes, 279; measuring, 278; 
plants, 271; production, 271; storing, 
277; time to cut, 273; value, 272. 

Heat, 38. 

Hemp, 457. 

Hessian fly, 158. 

Hogging off corn, 81. 

Hominy, 108. 

Horticulture, definition, 12. 

Humus, 36. 

Hungarian millet, 325. 

Hybrids, 42. 

Improvement of plants, 42, and under 
separate crops. 

Inbreeding, 117. 

Inoculation, 330, 358. 

Insects, 110. See under various crops. 

Iron, 35. 

Italian rye grass, 313. 

Japan clover, 385. 

Jimson weed, 509. 

Johnson grass. 

As weed, 495; description, 308; eradi- 
cation, 309; importance, 308; origin, 
308. 

Judging. See under various crops. 

Jute, 459. 

Kafir corn, 243 

Kale, 396. 

Kaoliang, 243. 

Kentucky blue grass. 

Care of lawns, 300; harvesting, 300; 
importance, 298; origin and descrip- 
tion, 296; pasturing, 299; related 
plants, 297; seeding, 299; soils and 
fertilizers, 298. 
Kinghead, 495, 506, 509. 
Knotweed, 505. 
Kohl-rabi, 395. 
Leaching, 59. 
Leaves, Use of, 26. 
33— 



Legumes. 

Bur clovers, 384; characters, 327; 
conditions necessary for bacteria, 330; 
cowpea, 367; definition, 327; diflfer- 
ences, 328; field bean, 381; field pea, 
379; how they gather nitrogen, 329; 
importance, 328; inoculation, 330; 
Japan clover, 385; peanut, 376; soy 
bean, 374; sweet clover, 382; velvet 
bean, 387; vetches, 385. 

Lespedeza, 385. 

Lime, 35. 

Lint, 440. 

Magnesium, 35. 

Malt, 210. 

Malt sprouts, 212. 

Mammoth clover, 333. 

Mangels. 

Cultivation, 392; harvesting, 392; 
seeding, 391; soil and preparation, 
350; storing, 253; uses, 393. 

Manila, 459. 

Manures. See under various crops. 

Marsn elder, 506, 509. 

Mayweed, 494. 

Meadow. 

Aftermath, 268; alfalfa, 359; care, 
267; depth to cover seed, 266; essen- 
tials, 260; formation, 260; germination 
test, 263; importance of plants, 266; 
nurse crop, 265; permanent, 269; 
preparing land, 262; rate of seeding, 
266; rotation, 269; seeding, 265; 
selection of seed, 263; sowing, 261. 

Medical crops, 19. 

Mildew, 496. 

Milkweed, 500, 506, 508. 

Millets. 

Barnyard, 325; broomcorn, 250; com- 
mon, 322; foxtail, 321; German. 322; 
Hungarian, 322; pearl, 325; types, 
250; varieties, 252. 

Milo maize, 243. 

Morning-glory, 505, 508. 

Mullein, 508. 

Navy bean, 381. 

Nitrogen, 34, 37, 38. 

Nurse crops, 153, 188, 210, 265, S39, 

358. 
Oatmeal, 189. 
Oats. 

Acre yield, 170; botanical characters, 
164; by-products, 190; classification, 
165; cost of production, 185; cutting, 
178; depth to cover, 177; diseases, 
191; exports and imports, 183; grades, 
182; harrowing, 177; harvesting, 178; 
hay and pasture, 190; importance, 
168; improvement, 193; insects, 191; 
irrigation, 178; judging, 194; manure 



514 



FIELD CROPS 



and fertilizers, 172; marketing, 182; 
nurse crop, 187; origin and history, 
163; preparing the land, 173, pre- 
paring seed, 175; prices, 183; produc- 
tion, 168; rate of seeding, 176; rota- 
tion, 186; score card, 194; seeding 
implements, 177; stocking, 179; soil, 
171; sowing with other grains, 188; 
stacking, 180; storing, 182; straw, 
190; tnreshing, 181; time for sowing, 
175; uses, 188; varieties, 167. 

Orange hawkweed, 508. 

Orchard grass. 

Description, 303; importance, 303; 
origin, 303; seeding, 304; utilization, 
305. 

Ox-eye daisy, 495, 508. 

Pastures. 

Essentials, 281; formation, 281;" im- 
portance, 281; improving, 283; man- 
agement, 283; plants, 282'; renovat- 
ing, 284. 

Peanut. 

Characters, 376; cultivation, 377; 
harvesting, 378; importance, 377; 
uses, 379. 

Pearl millet, 325. 

Pepper grass, 506. 

Perennial rye grass, 291. 

Perennial weeds, 495. 

Phosphorus, 34, 37, 38. 

Plantain, 495, 508. 

Plant food. 

Elements, 34; sources, 36, 93. 

Planting seeds, 25. 

Pop corn, 50. 

Potash, 37, 38. 

Potassium, 35. 

Potatoes. 

Acre yield, 403; blight, 415; breeding, 
419; brown rot, 417; characters, 400; 
cost of production, 413; crossing, 
418; cultivation, 409; cutting seed, 
407; diseases, 415; exports and im- 
ports, 414; growing, 404; harvesting, 
410; importance, 401; improvement, 
418; insects, 417; irrigation, 410; 
marketing, 412; origin and history, 
399; picking, 411; planting, 408; pre- 
paring the land, 404; preparing seed, 
407; prices, 413; production, 402; 
rotation, 414; scab, 416; seed, 405; 
soils and fertilizers, 403; sorting, 411; 
storing, 411; varieties, 401. 

Quack grass, 495, 497, 500, 505, 508. 

Rag-doll tester, 65. 

Ragweed, 454, 505, 509. 

Rape, 396. 



Red clover. 

Description, 333; enemies, 345; im- 
portance, 335; inoculation, 340; mak- 
ing hay, 341; nurse crop, 339; origin, 
333; pasturing, 343; rotation, 345: 
seed to use, 337; soils, 336; sowing, 
338; treatment, 340; value, 343. 

Redtop. 

Description, 301; importance, 302; 
origin, 301; seeding, 303; soils, 303; 
related plants, 302. 

Reproduction, 40. 

Rescue grass, 310. 

Respiration, 28. 

Rice. 

Botanical characters, 237; conditions 
for production, 239; growing, 240; 
importance, 238; origin and history, 
237; uses, 240; varieties, 238. 

Roots 17, defined, 29; growth, 30. 

Root crops, 17, 389. 

Root hairs, 31. 

Rotation of crops. 

Advantages, 426; classes of crops, 482; 
crops to grow, 486; definition, 475; 
essentials, 483; length of rotation, 
488; origin, 475; suggestive rotations, 
488; when to fertilize, 487. 

Russian thistle, 500, 506, 508. 

Rust, 155, 496. 

Rutabagas, 394. 

R.ve. 

Description, 217; diseases, 223; grow- 
ing, 220; importance, 217; production, 
218; straw, 223; uses, 221. 

Rye grass, 313. 

Scab, 155, 417. 

Score cards. 

Barley, 215; corn, 120; oats, 194; 
wheat, 161. 

Sedatives, 19. 

Seed. 

Definition, 23; production of, 40. 

Sheep sorrel, 508. 

Shepherd's purse, 454. 

Silage, 86, 253. 

Silicon, 35. 

Sirup. 

Corn, 108; sorghum, 319. 

Sisal, 459. 

Smartweed, 506. 

Smut. 

Barley, 212; corn, 109; oats, 193; 
wheat, 156. 

Squirreltail, 508. 

Sodium, 35. 

Sorghums, grain. 

Botanical description, 241; import- 
ance, 243; growing, 244; origin and 
history, 241; types, 243; value, 245. 



INDEX 



515 



Sorghums, grass. 

Culture, 317; description, 315; im- 
portance, 317; origin, 315; sirup, 319; 
uses, 318. 

Sow thistle, 495, 505, 506, 508. 

Spraying. 

Potatoes, 41G; weeds, 507. 

Starch, 35, 108. 

Stimulants and sedatives, 19. 

Stover, corn, 80, 253. 

Sudan grass. 

Adaptation, 320; culture, 321; descrip- 
tion, 320; uses, 321. 

Sugar, 430, 431. 

Sugar cane. 

Characters, 431, cultivation, 434; ex- 
tracting the juice, 435; harvesting, 
434; making the sugar 436; planting, 
434; production, 432; propagation, 
432; soils and fertilizers, 433; sugar 
content. 431. 

Sugar beet, 390. See beet, sugar. 

Sugar crops, 18. 

Sugar plants, 426. 

Sulphur, 35. 

Sunflowers, 509. 

Sunlight, 38. 

Sweet clover. 

Culture, 383; curing, 384; cutting, 
383; description, 382; harvesting, 383; 
importance, 382. 

Sweet corn, 49. 

Sweet potatoes. 

Cultivation, 423; description, 419; 
digging, 424; growing the plants, 421; 
importance, 420; origin, 419; prepar- 
ing the soil, 422; setting the plants, 
423; soils and fertilizers, 421; uses, 
424; varieties, 420. 

Teosinte, 326. 

Timothy. 

Description, 291 ; care of meadow, 294 ; 
harvesting, 296; importance, 292; 
making hay, 294; origin, 291; pastur- 
ing, 295; seed and seeding, 293; soils 
and fertilizers, 293; value, 295. 

Toadflax, 508. 

Tobacco. 

Botanical characters, 461; composi- 
tion, 462; cultivation, 468; curing, 
470; diseases, 473; grading, 471; 
harvesting, 469; importance, 462; in- 
sects, 473; marketing, 472; origin and 
history, 461; preparing the field, 467; 
preparing the seed bed, 464; returns, 
472; rotation, 473; setting the plants, 
468; selection of seed, 473; soils and 
fertilizers, 463 ; sowing seed, 465 ; strip- 
ping, 471; topping, 468; types, 462. 



Translocation, 27. 

Transpiration, 28. 

Tubers, 17, 399. 

Tumbleweeds, 500. 

Turnips, 394. 

Units of measure, 54. 

Uses of crops, 19. 

Vegetable matter, 36. 

Velvet bean, 387. 

Velvet weed, 505, 509. 

Vetches. 

Culture, 386; description, 385, 500; 
uses, 386. 

Water, 38. 

Weeds. 

Annual, 494; benefits, 498; biennial, 
494; classes, 493; damage, 495; defini- 
tion, 493; eradication, 502; how weeds 
spread, 499; meadow% 508; need for 
study, 493; pasture, 508; perennial, 
495; roadside, 508; spraying, 507. 

Weevil, 113. 

Wheat. 

Acre yield, 134; breeding, 159; classi- 
fication, 127; cost of production, 150; 
crossing, 160; diseases, 154; distribu- 
tion, 132; durum, 130; exports and 
imports, 149; fanning mill selection, 
138; fertilization, 125; flour, 153; 
flowers, 124; grades, 147; growling, 
136; harrowing, 141; harvesting, 142; 
importance, 130; insects, 158; judg- 
ing, 160; kernels, 128; leaves, 124; 
marketing, 147; new varieties, 139; 
nurse crops, 153; origin and histors', 
123; preparing the land, 136; prepar- 
ing seed, 138; prices, 149; production, 
130; rotation, 152; score card, 161; 
season of growth, 127; shocking, 142; 
soils and fertilizers, 134; sowing, 140; 
spring, 129; stacking, 144; storing, 
146; threshing, 145; time of sowing, 
140; uses, 154; varieties, 127; winter, 
129. 

White clover. 

Characters, 346; rotation, 348; sow- 
ing, 347. 

White grubs, 112. 

Wild barley, 508. 

Wild buckwheat, 505. 

Wild garlic, 506. 

Wild morning-glory, 506. 

Wild mustard, 506. 

Wild oats, 500, 506. 

Wilt, flax, 233. 

Wilting, 31. 

Wireworms, 110. 

Wood meadow grass, 297. 

Yarrow, 508. 



STANDARD AGRICULTURAL BOOKS 

STANDARD AGRICULTURAL 

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FIELD CROPS 

By A. D. WILSON, Sup't of Farmers' Institutes and Extension, 
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544 pages, 162 illustrations, cloth, $1.50 net. 



This book discusses the peculiarities of each of the various classes 
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Iowa State College 



554 pages, 342 illustrations, cloth, $1.50 net. 



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I A. E. PICKARD I 

1 AN AID TO PRODUCTIVE TEACHING 1 

m FOR NORMAL CLASSES, READING CIR- M 

i CLES, COUNTY SUPERINTP:NDENTS and 1 

m RURAL TEACHERS 1 

M Adopted in Several States and Many Counties M 

p Industrial subjects are disputing place with academic = 

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M of new and greater possibilities, tend to increase efficiency in M 

p the schoolroom and to direct and elevate all rural life. M 

^ 12mo., 430 pages. Illustrated. Price, $1.00 net % 

i WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY, | 

m SAINT PAUL. MINN. S 

1 



Elements of Farm Practice 

Wilson and Wilson 

The latest and most up-to-date elementary agricultural text for 
rural and graded schools. 

IT IS THE PRODUCT OF EXPERIENCE. 

The authors have both teaching and farm experience. The 
publishers are specialists in agricultural and industrial texts and are 
in close touch with the ever-growing needs of our schools. 

IT IS A COMPLETE COURSE OF STUDY. 

Elements of Farm Practice fully covers the range of agriculture 
and rural life in an orderly, logical and progressive fashion that is 
cumulative, emphatic and inspiring. 

IT IS TEACHABLE. 

Each lesson naturally precedes the next and prepares for it. The 
style is fascinating. Children become lovers of God's great out-of- 
doors. This kind of pedagogy is perfect. 

IT IS PRACTICAL. 

The lessons are correlated with arithmetic and other studies. 
They teem with actual life, make the farm the school laboratory and 
are based on actual operations and conditions. 

IT IS ABREAST OF THE TIMES. 

Elements of Farm Practice is the latest book of its kind pub- 
lished. It contains the most recent figures and facts available. It 
also gives prominent attention to Farmers' Clubs, Boys' and Girls' 
Clubs, Co-operation, Marketing, Accounts, The Farm Home and 
School Gardens. 

IT IS HEARTILY ENDORSED. 

State, county and city superintendents, professors in normal 
schools and agricultural colleges, and rural school teachers themselves 
have been unanimous in profuse praise of this book. 
"The more we use it the more we like it." 
"I began to examine it and read it through." 



No other book appeals so much to the boys and the girls. 
No other book so well connects the work of the school and home. 
No other book produces so effective results in rural schools. 
Printed on high grade paper, strongly bound, copiously illustrated, 
364 pages, $1.00 net. 

Webb Publishing Company, 

St. Paul, Minn. 



